cendant, but their triumph was of short duration. Noboa was deposed by a Junta formed at Guayaquil, and General José Maria Urbina, the leader of the Radicals, became president and dictator, 1851. His instalment was followed by the usual disputes and struggles for the supreme power. In May, 1865, Hieronymus Carrion, after a violent party struggle, was elected president of Ecuador.

PERU.

Among all the republics of South and Central America, Peru has alone been unable to obtain from Spain the recognition of its independence. On hearing, therefore, of the European invasion of Mexico, the Peruvians fell into great excitement. Since the Spaniards had surrendered their last position and evacuated the country, the history of Peru for twenty years afforded the most sorrowful picture of civil wars and convulsions, which impeded the development of the country, undermined its prosperity, and brought no single benefit as compensation. During the presidentship of Ramon Castilla, 1845, a more tranquil period prevailed; but his successor, Don José Rufino Echénique, commenced hostilities against Ecuador and the United States, and after a short period of office was driven from his post by Castilla, who again resumed the office of president.

Signs were now not wanting to show that attempts were being made to assert a European supremacy over the South American States, and against such tendencies Castilla directed all his energies. He attempted to unite all the American republics into a league against foreign powers, and before long became involved in direct conflict with the former mother-country, Spain, which, by way of retaliation for an attack on the Basque colony of Talambo, contrived to obtain possession of various islands which belonged to Peru. The next president of the republic, Pezet, drew down on himself universal odium by an attempt to enter into negotiations with the enemy. He was declared a traitor, and was obliged to yield up his power. Colonel Prado, the leader of the movement against him, was then declared dictator, and immediately entered into an alliance with Chili, and declared war against Spain, December, 1865. The conflict terminated with satisfactory results for the Peruvian republic; Prado was appointed president,

and every Spaniard was banished from Peru and Bolivia.

BOLIVIA.

Since the constitution of the country of Bolivia as a representative republic, the same social phenomena had shown themselves that had made such havoc and disorder in the other republics. On New Year's Eve of 1829, General Blanco, the president, was murdered in an insurrection; but some degree of peace was restored when Grand-Marshal Santa Cruz accepted the presidency. He, however, was also ultimately deposed and compelled to quit the country. He took ship to Guayaquil, in Ecuador, leaving Bolivia a prey to party conflicts. Only when the Peruvians, availing themselves of the dissensions of the neighboring State, took possession of the wealthy district of La Paz, did the Bolivians unite together and elect General Ballivian as president. Santa Cruz, however, returned again, and re-asserted his rights, and for several years complete anarchy prevailed.

One president after another obtained the supreme power, and was then compelled to bow before the popular disfavor and retire. In attempting to repress an insurrection aimed at the overthrow of one of the short-lived governments, Colonel Placido Yanez caused a hundred and six persons to be shot in one night, October, 1861. This cruel deed did not, however, deter others from attempting to overthrow the president, José Maria de Acha, who, nevertheless, by his judicious and moderate system of administration, did much to re-establish the tranquillity of the country, 1863. Two years later, however, he also succumbed to a rebellion headed by the former president, Belzu, who obtained once more the presidential dignity, when the old internal disputes were again revived, and the fruits of Acha's wisdom and energy were entirely lost.

CHILI.

Chili, the long strip of coast country between the mountain-chain of the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, has rejoiced in a more stable political organization than the other republics of South America, probably because the population is chiefly of European origin; and the people of mixed blood, the original inhabitants, Indians and half-breeds, exercise no influence on historical and political life. Nevertheless, Chili has not remained entirely free from civil

discord. From the time when General San Martin with his band of Chilians and auxiliaries defeated the Spaniards in a fierce battle near Chacabuco, 1818, till the year 1826, when General Freyre conquered the island of Chiloe, the last stronghold of the Spanish garrisons, Chili also was torn with. party struggles. According to the Constitution of 1824, the government power was vested in a president, ministry, and congress; and in Santiago, the seat of the government, a supreme court of justice was established.

Under President Prieto, 1831, many useful institutions were established, and the republic came forth successfully from its defence against the attack of the Bolivian president, Santa Cruz. This result raised the national feeling and the energy of the Chilians; Spain recognized the country as an independent free state, and concluded with it a commercial treaty, 1844; and the wise administration of successive presidents increased the wealth and prosperity of the country. Chili was also drawn into the Spanish-Peruvian war. President Perez availed himself of the national excitement to place the coast in a state of defence, which was soon followed by a blockade on the part of the Spaniards. But on the intervention of the English and French governments, the Spanish Cabinet declared itself ready to enter into peaceful negotiations, and after some further hostilities, occasioned by the capture of a Spanish vessel by a Chilian corvette, an armed truce was arranged in 1866.

THE STATES OF LA PLATA, THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, AND BUENOS AYRES.

As early as the year 1816, a Congress of Tucuman had declared the independence of "the United States of Rio de La Plata." Civil wars, however, commenced under ambitious party leaders, which ended in Paraguay and Uruguay constituting themselves separate republics. Nevertheless, after the secession of these and other territories, a comprehensive kingdom still existed, which included fourteen republican States, and which recognized in the ruler of Buenos Ayres the controller of foreign affairs and the highest executive administration. By degrees Buenos Ayres raised itself above the other republics, and sought to assume the control of the whole State-league. The party who upheld this scheme were called Centralists, but their aims were

violently opposed by the party of Federalists, who had a clever and enterprising leader in Don Manuel Ortez de Rosas. The authority of this man soon became so overpowering that he was able to seize the supreme power, and for fifteen years he maintained an absolute dictatorship. He was, however, at last defeated by the opposite party under Don José de Urquiza in the battle of Monte Caseros, and was compelled to fly from the country and seek refuge with his family in England, February, 1852. Urquiza was then installed at the head of the government. His term of power was of brief duration. During his absence at the Congress of Santa Fé, an insurrection broke out at Buenos Ayres, which resulted in Valentine Alsina being declared governor, and in the town seceding from the Confederation and constituting itself an independent State, 1852. Every attempt to reduce the insubordinate town to obedience proved fruitless. The Argentine Republic made Bajada del Parana, in the district Entre Rios, the seat of government, and Buenos Ayres established its own constitution, in which, however, the return into the Confederation was foreshadowed. Every successive attempt to heal the unfortunate breach was frustrated by the "Unity party" in Buenos Ayres, and the Federalists on the Parana. Only when President Urquiza gained a complete victory over the hostile town-republic near Cepada, Oct. 1859, was a treaty of peace arranged, in consequence of which Buenos Ayres was again united with the Argentine State-union; but the old quarrels and dissensions were of frequent occurrence. General Mitre was elected president in 1862.

URUGUAY.

In the twenty years, when the independence of South America had been already extorted from Spain, Brazil and Buenos Ayres strove for the possession of the east side (Banda Oriental) of the La Plata. When the Brazilians, after a long struggle, surrendered the hope of obtaining the "Cisplatine province," they exerted themselves in the development of their own State, that at any rate the rival republic of Buenos Ayres might not increase in power. But a few years after the constitution of the Republic Oriental del Uruguay had been sworn and recognized by the Powers, an internal dispute arose between the president, Ribera, and his successor, Oribe, which quickly divided the whole country

into two camps. This civil war continued for several years, until at last the intervention of Brazil, and the mediation of the ambassadors of England, France, and Spain, availed in bringing about an arrangement between the party chiefs, in consequence of which a new president, Pereira, was elected, 1856. Fresh disturbances, however, took place; but the insurgents were finally overpowered by the government, and General Medina and the leaders were shot. The next president, Prudencio Verro, also met with many opponents to his policy; and shortly after his instalment, General Flores, with the help of the Liberals, attempted once more to obtain the presidential dignity. He landed at Colonia in April, 1863, and with rapidly increasing forces made his way to the capital. There, however, he did not meet with the expected support. When Verro's period of office was at an end, another party leader, Aquirre, was placed at the head of the government. Flores, however, maintained his hostile position, and the struggle began by his capture of the harbor towns of Salta and Paysandu, August, 1864. In the following year, Montevideo was surrounded both by land and sea by Flores, and was finally surrendered in the treaty of La Union by the new president, Vilalba, in February.

The political affairs of the La Plata States now underwent a speedy change. Uruguay formed an armed alliance with Brazil and the Argentine Republic against Paraguay, whose president, Lopez, would not consent to the peace, because he saw therein a source of danger to the trading interests of the republic. The three allied powers then took the field against Paraguay, but retired after their efforts had been rendered fruitless by mutual distrust. During the absence of General Flores, the opposite party had once more gained ground in Montevideo; but just at the moment when his own supporters were contemplating raising him to the presidentship, he was assassinated by four conspirators as he was driving to the government palace, February, 1867. The popular excitement and in

dignation at this cruel deed was so great that the senate made over the government to the brother of the murdered man, Don Manuel Flores.

PARAGUAY.

Long had the ancient Jesuit State between the rivers Parana and Paraguay delayed before it obeyed the summons to shake off the Spanish dominion, June, 1811. The congress of Buenos Ayres could not deny the neighboring State the self-government which it claimed for itself, yet it never pardoned the little country for wishing to obtain its freedom. After a few years, the ambitious Dr. Francia was declared dictator, and subsequently this office was conferred upon him for his life. By his system of government, after the fashion of the earlier Jesuit missions, the country was completely cut off from foreign intercourse-no stranger might enter the country, and no native might leave it. After his death, this system of isolation was gradually given up, a National Congress founded a new state law, and appointed Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, a nephew of the dictator, as president, who also held the office with dictatorial powers until his death.

The presidentship of his son, Francisco Solanc Lopez, September, 1862, brought the years of peace and internal prosperity to an end. In the war between Paraguay and Brazil, Lopez, who feared that, by the union of the three States, Paraguay's communication with the sea might be cut off, did not hesitate to measure his strength with his powerful neighbors. For several years he maintained the struggle against his threefold enemy; and in spite of the great warlike resources of the Brazilians, both by land and sea, the allied powers failed to subjugate Paraguay. It is true that during this period the opposition gained ground in Paraguay against the dictatorial power, and Lopez was compelled to have recourse to many repressive measures. He was at last slain in battle on the bank of the Agurdaban, 1870, when his army was destroyed, and the country came practically into the hands of the allies.

RANCE has done little since the great Revolution but rest for a few years and then heave and struggle as before. Louis XVIII. was, like Charles II. of England, resolved not to go on his travels again. He had Talleyrand, Blacas, and Decazes for his advisers; he paid careful heed to the temper of the nation, and reigned with tolerable quietness. By the charter there was a House of hereditary Peers named by the king, and a Chamber of Deputies. The mode of their election was changed several times, but the franchise was confined to so small a part of the nation that the Chamber of Peers was generally the more liberal body of the two, and often threw out reactionary measures which had been passed by the Chamber of Deputies. But of the king's brother the Count of Artois and his family it was said, "The Bourbons have forgotten nothing and have learned nothing;" for Monsieur, as according to the old custom the count was called, was known to wish to bring back all that was possible of the former royal power. Both brothers had been dissipated in their youth, but while Louis had lapsed into easy indifferent free-thinking, Charles had become devout. He was under the guidance of the Jesuits, who had been restored by Pius VII., and were striving to bring back the shattered power of the Church. Of Charles's two sons, the elder, the Duke of Angoulême, had married Maria Theresa, the daughter of Louis XVI. She was so resolute a woman that Napoleon called her the only man of the family, but too grave, sad, and stern to be much loved. She had no children, and the hopes of the royalists were fixed on the Duke of Berry, until he was murdered at the opera on the night of February 22,

1822, leaving a daughter and a posthumous son named Henry.

There was much discontent and secret conspiracy throughout Europe, which the Congress of Vienna had parcelled out rather according to the claims of sovereigns than those of nations. In Spain there was a revolution which compelled Ferdinand VII. to accept a constitution, but in 1823 French troops were sent under the Duke of Angoulême, which restored the king to power, and he at once destroyed the constitution. There was jealousy between the old returned nobility and those who held Bonaparte's newly-coined titles, but, as long as Louis XVIII. lived, disputes were kept in check by his unfailing tact and courtesy. He was a true son of Louis XIV. in attention to etiquette, even when so gouty and feeble that he could hardly support himself. He used to say, "Punctuality is the politeness of kings." As his health declined matters fell more into the management of Monsieur, and Louis, seeing what would be the end of his narrow policy, implored him to save the kingdom for his grandchild, Henry, duke of Bordeaux.

Louis XVIII. died on September 10, 1824, and was succeeded by Charles X., the last king who was crowned at Rheims. He began his reign with the desire of bringing back the ascendency of the clergy and of the crown, and giving most of his confidence to the old emigrant nobility. Under their influence and that of the Jesuits, steps were taken which angered the people. It was proposed that books and newspapers should be inspected before publication, and, when the Chamber of Deputies threw out the bill, there was an universal illumination. The charter was thought to be attacked, and when the king reviewed the National Guard, one legion

greeted him with cries of "Long live the Charter," and the Duchesses of Angoulême and Berry with 66 Down with the Jesuits." The National Guard was dissolved, and great discontent followed. This reign, however, was remarkable for some important foreign successes. In 1827 the fleet of France joined with those of England and Russia to win the victory of Navarino over the Turks, and in the next year Peloponnesus was completely freed from its Mussulman invaders by the help of the French troops. In the first half of 1830 the pirate state of Algiers was overthrown, and Algeria became a French colony.

Charles X.'s last ministry under the Prince of Polignac led him into greater mistakes than any that he had made already. In March, 1830, the Chamber of Deputies passed a vote of censure on the ministry, and requested the king to dismiss them. Instead of so doing, he dissolved the chambers, and, when it was clear that the new elections were wholly unfavorable to the ministry, he put forth three ordinances which were distinctly against the law. By the first the liberty of the press was destroyed, no newspaper or pamphlet was to be published without leave. By the second the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved before it had met: in other words, the king took on himself to annul the elections. By the third the mode of election was altered again, and the franchise was still more restricted. Some of the newspapers were published nevertheless, and some of the judges declared that the ordinances were illegal. On July 27, the police were sent to break the presses of the refractory papers.

The revolution now began, called the Revolution of the Three days of July, from the fighting having happened on the 27th, 28th, and 29th of that month. Barricades formed of carriages, pavingstones, and furniture, were set up in the streets; the tri-colored flag waved from all the public buildings, and Marshal Marmont was directed to reduce the insurgents with the regular army. All the regiments of the line sympathized with the insurgents, so that Marmont durst employ none but the guards, and, when they tried to force the barricades, they were shot down from the windows, and crushed with paving-stones from the roofs. Lafayette, who had survived all the storms of the old revolution, proposed the formation of a provisional government.

But, instead of this, deputies who had been elected came together and sent a protest to the king, but he took no notice. On the 28th several regiments went over to the insurgents, and Marmont, with 5,000 men against 100,000, did his best to defend the Louvre, and was the last man to retreat, but he was forced to come to the king at St. Cloud and tell him his cause was lost in Paris.

Lafayette took the command of the National Guard. The king withdrew the ordinances, but it was too late. Some were for a republic, but the deputies appointed the Duke of Orleans lieutenantgeneral of the kingdom. The Duke of Angoulême, the king's son, still tried to use force, and, on this proving hopeless, Charles, seeing no further hope for himself or his family, resigned his claims and those of his eldest son, only reserving the rights of his grandson. The chambers, however, would not accept the Duke of Bordeaux, but first, on August 7, passed certain amendments to the charter, and then elected the Duke of Orleans king, restoring once more the ancient title of King of the French. Meanwhile the deposed king with his family made their way to Cherbourg and embarked for England.

The new king, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, who had already been chosen lieutenant-general of the kingdom, was the eldest son of that duke who had called himself Egalité, and had perished in the revolution. Bred up by the clever Madame de Genlis, he had been an intelligent youth, full of resource, and had distinguished himself in the battle of Valmy and the other earlier fights with the emigrants. Later in the revolution all the family were arrested, except the daughter Adelaide, who was taken to England by Madame de Genlis, and Louis Philippe, who escaped into Switzerland, so destitute that he became a teacher in a school near Geneva. Both his parents were guillotined, but his two brothers lived to be released at the end of the Reign of Terror. He then joined them in England, where the youngest died, and the other soon after at Malta. After spending some time in America, he returned at the restoration, recovered his estates, and married the Sicilian princess Maria Amelia. He afterwards became the heir of the Prince of Condé, who had been left childless by the murder of the Duke of Enghien, and in whom were united the inheritances of the houses of Guise and Montmorency. He, with his wife and sister, lived at the