That however dependant the ice may have been on the land, from the time of its first appearance, to its gaining an ascendancy over the waves of the ocean, sufficient to resist their utmost ravages, and to arrest the progress of maritime discovery, at a distance of perhaps from six hundred to a thousand miles from the Pole, it is now evident, that the proximity of land is not essential, either for its existence, its formation, or its increase. On the situation of the Polar Ice, and the effects produced on it by the change of seasons. The mass of ice lying between Old Greenland on the west, and the Russian portion of Europe on the east, though varying considerably in particulars, yet as a general outline is strikingly uniform. On the east coast of West Greenland, a remarkable alteration has, however, taken place. That part extending from the parallel of Iceland to Staten-Hook, was, before the fifteenth century, free of ice, and could always be approached in the summer season, without hinderance. After a considerable trade had been carried on between Iceland and the Main for upwards of 400 years, singular as it may appear, of a sudden the polar ice extended its usual limits, launched down by the land to the Southern Cape, and so completely barricadoed the whole of the eastern coast, that it has not since been accessible. The fate of the wretched inhabitants is unknown; but they are generally supposed to have perished from the want of their usual supplies, or from the increased coldness of their atmosphere. In various countries, changes of climate to a certain extent have occurred, within the limits of historical record; these changes have been commonly for the better, and have been considered as the effects of human industry, in draining marshes and lakes, felling woods, and cultivating the earth: but here is an occurrence, the reverse of common experience; and concerning its causes I am not prepared to hazard any conjecture. with each recurring spring, exhiThis icy barrier, at present, bits the following general outline. After doubling the southern promontory of Greenland, it advances in a north-eastern direction along the east coast, enveloping Iceland as it proceeds, until it reaches John Mayne's Island. Passing this island on the north-west, but frequently enclosing it likewise, it then trends a little more to the eastward, and intersects the meridian of London in the 71st or 72d degree of latitude. Having reached the longitude of 6, 8, or perhaps 10 degrees east, in the 73d or 74th degree of north latitude, it suddenly stretches to the north, sometimes proceeding on a meridian to the latitude of SOo, at others forming a deep sinuosity, extending two or three degrees to the northward, and then south easterly to Cherry Island ;-which having passed, it assumes a direct course a little south of east, until it forms a junction with the Siberian or Nova Zemblan coast. That remarkable promontory, formed by the sudden stretch of the ice to the north, constitutes the the line of separation between the east or whale-fishing, and west or sealing ice of the fishers. And the deep bay lying to the east of this point, invariably forms the only pervious track for proceeding to fishing latitudes northward. When the ice at the extremity of this bay occurs so strong and compact as to prevent the approach to the shores of Spitzbergen, and the advance northward beyond the latitude of 75° or 76°, it is said to be a close season; and, on the contrary, it is called an open season, when an uninterrupted navigation extends along the western coast of Spitzbergen to Hackluyt's Headland. In an open season, therefore, a large channel of water lies between the land and the ice, from 20 to 50 leagues in breadth, extending to the latitude of 79° or 80°, and gradually approximating the coast, until it at length effects a coalition with the north-western extremity, by a semicircular head. When the continuity of the mass of ice, intervening between West Greenland and Nova Zembla, is thus interrupted in an open season, the ice again makes its appearance on the south of Spitzbergen, proceeding from thence direct to Cherry Island, and then eastward as before. Such is the general appearance of the margin or outline of the polar ice, which holds, with merely partial changes, for many successive seasons. This outline, how e er, is necessarily more or less affected by storms and currents : their more than ordinary prevalence in any one direction, must cause some variety of aspect in particular places, which becomes more especially apparent in the VOL. LIX. vicinity of land, where its coasts afford marks by which to estimate the advance and retreat of the ice. The line formed by the exterior of the ice, is variously indented, and very rarely appears direct or uniform. Open bays or arms occur, from a few fathoms, to several miles in length. None of them, however, have any determinate form or place, except the "Whale-fisher's Bight," or great bay before described, in which the Greenlandmen ever seek a passage to the fishing stations. The place where whales occur in the greatest abundance, is generally found to be in the 78th or 79th degree of north latitude, though from the 72d to the 81st degree they have been met with. These singular animals, which, on account of their prodigious bulk and strength, might be thought entitled to reign supreme in the ocean, are harmless and timid. They seem to prefer those situations which afford them the most secure retreats. Among the ice, they have an occasional shelter ; but so far as it is permeable, the security is rather apparent than real. That they are conscious of its affording them shelter, we can readily perceive, from observing that the course of their flight when scared or wounded, is generally towards the nearest or most compact ice. The place of their retreat, however, is regulated by various circumstances; it may sometimes depend on the quality and quantity of food occurring, the disposition of the ice, or exemption from enemies. At one time, their favourite haunt is amidst the huge and extended ΩΝ masses That however dependant the ice may have been on the land, from the time of its first appearance, to its gaining an ascendancy over the waves of the ocean, sufficient to resist their utmost ravages, and to arrest the progress of maritime discovery, at a distance of perhaps from six hundred to a thousand miles from the Pole, it is now evident, that the proximity of land is not essential, either for its existence, its formation, or its increase. On the situation of the Polar Ice, and the effects produced on it by the change of seasons. The mass of ice lying between Old Greenland on the west, and the Russian portion of Europe on the east, though varying considerably in particulars, yet as a general outline is strikingly uniform. On the east coast of West Greenland, a remarkable alteration has, however, taken place. That part extending from the parallel of Iceland to Staten-Hook, was, before the fifteenth century, free of ice, and could always be approached in the summer season, without hinderance. After a considerable trade had been carried on between Iceland and the Main for upwards of 400 years, singular as it may appear, of a sudden the polar ice extended its usual limits, launched down by the land to the Southern Cape, and so completely barricadoed the whole of the eastern coast, that it has not since been accessible. The fate of the wretched inhabitants is unknown; but they are generally supposed to have perished from the want of their usual supplies, or from the increased coldness of their atmosphere. In various countries, changes of climate to a certain extent have occurred, within the limits of historical record; these changes have been commonly for the better, and have been considered as the effects of human industry, in draining marshes and lakes, felling woods, and cultivating the earth: but here is an occurrence, the reverse of common experience; and concerning its causes I am not prepared to hazard any conjecture. This icy barrier, at present, with each recurring spring, exhibits the following general outline. After doubling the southern promontory of Greenland, it advances in a north-eastern direction along the east coast, enveloping Iceland as it proceeds, until it reaches John Mayne's Island. Passing this island on the north-west, but frequently enclosing it likewise, it then trends a little more to the eastward, and intersects the meridian of London in the 71st or 72d degree of latitude. Having reached the longitude of 6, 8, or perhaps 10 degrees east, in the 73d or 74th degree of north latitude, it suddenly stretches to the north, sometimes proceeding on a meridian to the latitude of 80°, at others forming a deep sinuosity, extending two or three degrees to the northward, and then south easterly to Cherry Island ;—which having passed, it assumes a direct course a little south of east, until it forms a junction with the Siberian or Nova Zemblan coast. That remarkable promontory, formed by the sudden stretch of the ice to the north, constitutes the From the deep pools of water formed in the summer season on the depressed surface of some bergs, the ships navigating where they abound are presented with opportunities for watering with the greatest ease and dispatch. For this purpose, casks are landed upon the lower bergs, whilst, from the higher, the water is conveyed by means of a hose into casks placed in the boats, at the side of the ice, or even upon the deck of the ship. Navigating amongst icebergs in the gloom of night, has sometimes been attended with fatal consequences. Occurring far from land, and in unexpected situations, the danger would be extreme, were they not providentially rendered visible by their natural effulgence, which enables the mariner to distinguish them at some distance, even in the darkest night, or during the prevalence of the densest fog. Abstract of the remarks on the for mation of the Polar Ice. From what has been advanced in the preceding pages, on the mode and place of formation of the ice, occurring in the seas intermediate between East Greenland or Spitzbergen, and West or Old Greenland, the following conclusions seem naturally to result, and which will partly apply to the formation of the ice in other places of the polar circle: I. Drift ice. That the light packed or drift ice is the annual product of the bays of Spitzbergen, and of the interstices in the body of older ice; and, that it is wholly derived from the water of the ocean. That the heavy packed or drift ice generally arises from the disruption of fields. II. Icebergs. That some ice mountains or icebergs are derived from the icebergs generated on the land between the mountains of the sea coast, and are consequently the product of snow or rain water. That a more considerable portion may probably be formed in the deep sheltered bays abounding on the east coast of Spitzbergen. These have their bed in the waters of the ocean, and are partly the product of sea-water, and partly that of snow and rain water. And it is highly probable, That a continent of ice mountains may exist in regions near the Pole, yet unexplored, the nucleus of which may be as ancient as the earth itself, and its increase derived from the sea and atmosphere combined. III. Fields.-That some fields arise from the cementation, by the agency of frost, of the pieces of a closely aggregated pack, which may have consisted of light or heavy ice; and, consequently, which may have been wholly derived from the ocean, or from the sea and atmosphere combined. That the most considerable masses are generated in openings of the far northern ice, produced by the constant recession towards the south of that body lying near the coasts of Spitzbergen; and, that such fields are at first derived from the ocean, but are indebted for a considerable portion of superstructure to the annual addition of the whole, or part of their burthen of snow. And, IV. As to the ice in general. That masses of the field ice; at another, in the open seas adjacent. Sometimes the majority of the whales inhabiting those seas, seem collected within a small and single circuit; at others, they are scattered in various hordes, and numerous single individuals, over an amazing extent of surface. To discover and reach the haunts of the whale, is an object of the first consideration in the fishery, and occasionally the most difficult and laborious to accomplish. In close seasons, though the ice joins the south of Spitzbergen, and thereby forms a barrier against the fishingstations, yet this barrier is often of a limited extent, and terminates on the coast of Spitzbergen in an open space, either forming, or leading to, the retreat of the whales. Such space is sometimes frozen over until the middle or end of the month of May, but not unfrequently free of ice. The barrier here opposed to the fisher, usually consists of a mass of ice from 20 to 30 or 40 leagues across in the shortest diameter. It is generally composed of packed ice, and often cemented into a continuous field by the interference of bay ice, which incredibly augments the difficulty of navigating among it. As the time that can be devoted to the whale-fishery is, by the nature of the climate, limited to three or four months in the year, it is of importance to pass this barrier of ice as early as possible in the season. The fisher here avails himself of every power within his command. The sails are expanded in favourable winds, and withdrawn in contrary breezes. The ship is urged forward amongst the drift ice through the force of the wind, assisted by ropes and saws. Whenever a vein of water, as it is called, appears in the required direction, it is if possible attained. It always affords a tem porary relief, and sometimes a permanent release, by extending itself through intricate mazes, amidst ice of various descriptions, until at length it opens into the desired place, void of obstruction, and the retreat of the whales. The formidable barrier before described, is regularly encountered on the first arrival of Greenland ships in the month of April, but is generally removed by natural means as the season advances. However extensive, huge, and compact it may be, it is usually found separated from the land, and divided asunder by the close of the month of June; and hence it is, that however difficult and laborious may have been the ingress into the fishing country, the egress is commonly effected without particular inconvenience. That the ice should envelope the whole coasts of Spitzbergen in the winter season, and expose the western shore about the month of June; that the ocean should be almost annually navigable on the meridians of 5° to 10° E., to the 80th degree of north latitude, whilst the ice in every other part of the world can rarely be penetrated beyond the 74th degree, are facts highly curious, and certainly worthy of consideration. On the recession of the ice from the west side of the land, a lane of water must be left from one extremity to the other; while to the south of Point Look-Out, a parallel |