Falce premes umbram, votisque vocaveris imbrem,
Heu, magnum alterius frustra spectabis acervum,
Concussaque famem in silvis solabere quercu

Dicendum et, quae sint duris agrestibus arma,
Quis sine nec potuere seri nec surgere messes:
Vomis et inflexi primum grave robur aratri,
Tardaque Eleusinae matris volventia plaustra,
Tribulaque, traheaeque, et iniquo pondere rastri;
Virgea praeterea Celei vilisque supellex,
Arbuteae crates et mystica vannus Iacchi.
Omnia quae multo ante memor provisa repones,
Si te digna manet divini gloria ruris.

157.] 'Umbram' is restored by Wagn.
from Med. and Rom. for 'umbras.'
66
Premes,' like premant vitem," Hor. 1
Od. 31. 9. Votis: vows were paid to
Jupiter Pluvius (Tibull. 1. 7. 26). There
were similar invocations at Athens. M.
Anton. 5. 7, εὐχὴ ̓Αθηναίων· ὅσον, ὖσον,
ὦ φίλε Ζεῦ, κατὰ τῆς ἀρούρας τῆς ̓Αθη-
ναίων καὶ τῶν πεδίων.

158.] This line is modelled on Lucr. 2. 2, 66 magnum alterius spectare laborem," and is itself imitated by Hor. 2 Od. 2. 24, "ingentes oculo inretorto Spectat acervos.' The sense resembles Hes. Works 394, ws τοι ἕκαστα Ωρι ̓ ἀέξηται μή πως τὰ μεταξὺ χατίζων Πτώσσης ἀλλοτρίους οἴκους καὶ μηδὲν ἀνύσσης. 'Acervum,' v. 185. For 'spectabis' two MSS. have ' expectabis,' one 'sperabis.'

159.] You will have to end where men began, and fall back upon acorns.' Observe in silvis,' the sense of wild life implying a contrast to 'in arvo.' The thought is not unlike Lucr. 5. 206 foll.

160-175.] 'The implements for a farmer are ploughs, waggons, thrashing instruments, harrows, baskets, hurdles, and fans. The plough has several parts, made from the wood of different trees, which should be well seasoned.'

160.]Duris agrestibus,' A. 7. 504. 'Arma: "Cerealiaque arma," A. 1. 177. 161.] Nec potuere' seems equivalent to 'have never been able.'

162] Robur aratri,' like 'robur ferri,' A. 7. 609, Lucr. 2. 449, 'robur saxi,' Lucr. 1. 882. The expression seems to be an ornamental one, not necessarily denoting a heavy plough for deep ploughing, which would not be suited to all soils. 'Inflexi' is explained by vv. 169, 170.

163.] Tarda qualifies 'volventia.' 'Eleusinae matris,' Ceres, who is intro

160

165

The

duced like Celeus and Bacchus, to give a
religious dignity to what might otherwise
seem trivial. "Eleusinus novavit poeta
pro vulgari 'EXɛvoivios," Heyne.
waggons apparently belong to her merely
as the goddess of husbandry, as the con-
vegances used in the Eleusinian processions
were not plaustra,' but 'tensae.'
'Matris'
is sufficiently explained by Anunτnρ, with-
out referring to the appellation which the
Italians are supposed to have given to their
goddesses (Keightley, Myth. p. 451).

164.] "Tribulum,' rà тpißoλa, a threshing-sledge.' "Fit e tabula lapidibus aut ferro asperata, quo imposito auriga aut pondere grandi trahitur iumentis iunctis ut discutiat e spica grana," Varro, R. R. 1. 52. This writer then mentions another kind made "ex assibus dentatis cum orbiculis, quod vocant plostellum poenicum." One of these was perhaps the 'traha' (or 'trahea'). The tribulum' ('trebbio,' It.; trillo,' Sp.) is still used in the East, in Spain, and in the south of Italy." Keightley. 165.] Celeus,' Kɛλɛóç, father of Triptolemus and Demophon, and himself the first priest of Demeter at Eleusis. The 'virgea supellex' seems to include baskets, colanders, &c. (E. 2. 71., 10. 71., G. 1. 266., 2. 241), as well as the hurdles and the fan.

·

166.] The winnowing-fan was carried in the Eleusinian processions in honour of Iacchus, the son of Demeter and Zeus, sometimes confounded with Bacchus (as by Virgil, E. 6. 15, 7. 51), sometimes distinguished from him (Dict. B.).

167.] Imitated from Hes. Works 457, τῶν πρόσθεν μελέτην ἐχέμεν οἰκήϊα θέσθαι. Memor' seems to be a translation of μɛμvnμévoç, Id. ib. 422. In the whole of the present passage Virgil probably had that part of Hesiod's poem before his mind.

168.] If you are destined ('manet') to

Continuo in silvis
magna
vi flexa domatur
In burim et curvi formam accipit ulmus aratri.
Huic ab stirpe pedes temo protentus in octo,
Binae aures, duplici aptantur dentalia dorso.
Caeditur et tilia ante iugo levis, altaque fagus
Stivaque, quae cursus a tergo torqueat imos;

Et suspensa focis explorat robora fumus.

Possum multa tibi veterum praecepta referre,
Ni refugis tenuisque piget cognoscere curas.
Area cum primis ingenti aequanda cylindro
Et vertenda manu et creta solidanda tenaci,
Ne subeant herbae, neu pulvere victa fatiscat,
Tum variae inludant pestes: saepe exiguus mus

take 'que' in 'altaque' as virtually equiva-
lent to 've'-'the light linden-tree or the
tall beech is cut beforehand for the yoke.'
For currus' Wagn. reads 'cursus' from
two MSS.; currus' however is naturally
enough applied to a plough in motion, as
in Catull. 62 (64). 9 of a ship, as if a plough
were a species of carriage, containing as it
does a
'temo' and a 'iugum' at least.
Serv. says that in Virgil's own parts wheel-
ploughs were used, as was the case in Pliny's
time (18. 18) in Gaul, and is still in Lom-
bardy.

175.] So in Hes. Works 45, 629 the rudder is to be hung in the smoke, as in Aristoph. Ach. 279 the shield when war is over. 'Explorat' seems to combine the notions of searching (drying) and testing. Before Heins. the reading was 'exploret:' but the context is descriptive, not directly preceptive. On the whole subject of Virgil's plough see Keightley's Terms of Husbandry, annexed to his edition, s. v. 'Aratrum,' and Daubeny, Lect. 3.

176-186.] There are many precepts of husbandry to be learnt for instance, the threshing-floor should be made thoroughly smooth and hard that it may not gape, and leave room first for weeds and then for animals of all kinds.'

176.] With this use of 'possum' comp. Plaut. Trin. 2. 2. 104, "Multa ego possum docta dicta et quamvis facunde loqui," where Lindemann explains 'possum; sed nolo nunc,' and see other instances in Kritz on Sall. C. 51. 4. 'Tibi' Maecenas is addressed throughout as the ideal reader, as Memmius by Lucr. Keightley well comp. Lucr. 1. 400," Multaque praeterea tibi possum commemorando Argumenta fidem dictis conradere nostris." Comp. also ib. v. 410, "Quod si pigraris, paulumve recesseris ab re."

177.]Refugis,' from hearing, as in A. 2. 12 from speaking. Observe the mood and tense, I can repeat... but I see you start off,'

178.] The chief passages in the writers De Re Rust. referring to the construction of an 'area' or threshing-floor are Cato 91, 129, Varro 1. 51, Col. 2. 19 (20), A sum

175

180

Be

mary of their results is thus given by
Keightley. "An elevated spot, to which
the wind would have free access, was to be
selected, but care was to be taken that it
should not be on the side from which the
wind usually blew on the house and garden,
as the chaff was injurious to trees and vege-
tables. It was to be circular in form, and
elevated a little in the centre, so that the
rain might not lie on it. It was sometimes
flagged, but was more usually formed of
'argilla,' with which chaff and amurga
were well mixed. It was then made solid
and level with rammers or a rolling-stone,
in order that it might not crack and so give
harbour to mice, ants, or any other vermin,
and that grass might not grow on it.
side the 'area was a building named
nubilarium,' into which the corn was car-
ried when there appeared any danger of
rain or storm." Sometimes the '
area' was
covered (Varro, 1. c.), but generally it was
in the open air. "Cum primis dicebant
pro eo quod est in primis," Gell. 17. 2.
The question entertained, if not raised,
by Forb. between 'cum primis' (= 'inter
primos') and 'cumprimis' (= 'praecipue')
seems to be really a question as to the word
or words with which cum primis' is to be
connected: e. g. in the present line it might
be taken with 'area,' or with 'ingenti,' or
with 'aequanda.' Here it seems best to refer
it to what has gone before, the 'multa prae-
cepta,' of which this that follows is the first.

179.] Vertenda manu,' as Serv. remarks, really precedes aequanda cylindro,' as the preparation of the floor is the first thing. 'Creta' 'argilla,' as in 2. 215, as appears from Varro, I. c.

180.] "Pulvere pro siccitate," Philargyrius, the effect for the cause, if 'pulvere' is to be taken with 'victa ;' but it may be a sort of modal abl. with fatiscat,' like "rimis fatiscunt," A. 1. 123. 'Fatisco' seems here to have both its original sense of breaking into chinks, and its secondary one of exhaustion. In this latter sense it is joined with 'victus,' as constantly in Lucr. with 'fessus.'

181.] 'Inludent' was the old reading: but Heins. restored 'inludant' from the

Sub terris posuitque domos atque horrea fecit;
Aut oculis capti fodere cubilia talpae;

Inventusque cavis bufo, et quae plurima terrae

Monstra ferunt; populatque ingentem farris acervum 185
Curculio, atque inopi metuens formica senectae.
Contemplator item, cum se nux plurima silvis
Induet in florem et ramos curvabit olentis.
Si superant fetus, pariter frumenta sequentur,
Magnaque cum magno veniet tritura calore;
At si luxuria foliorum exuberat umbra,
Nequiquam pinguis palea teret area culmos.

best MSS. Mock the threshing-floor and
the husbandman's labour.' So in 2. 375 the
goats are said to mock the young vine.
'Pestes,' as injuring the floor and annoying
the husbandman. 'Exiguus mus:' "Risi-
mus, et merito, nuper poetam, qui dixerat
Praetextam in cista mures rosere Camilli.
At Vergilii miramur illud: saepe exiguus
mus. Nam epitheton exiguus aptum, pro-
prium effecit, ne plus exspectaremus, et casus
singularis magis decuit, et clausula ipsa
unius syllabae non usitata addidit gratiam.
Imitatus est itaque utrumque Horatius,
Nascetur ridiculus mus," Quinct. 8. 3.

183.] This use of 'talpa' as masc., like that of 'damma,' E. 8. 28, is noted by Quinct. 9.3. 'Oculis capti: "Hannibal. . . . quia medendi nec locus nec tempus erat, altero oculo capitur," Livy 22. 2. The expression seems to come from the use of' capi,' for 'to be injured,' as in Lucr. 5. 929, "Nec facile ex aestu nec frigore quod caperetur, Nec novitate cibi, nec labi corporis ulla," the abl. with captus' showing the point in which the injury has been sustained.

190

in human language. With the dat. comp. "metuisse tuis,' A. 10. 94. It is well known that the ancients were in error about the habits of the ant, which has no storehouses, and remains torpid during the greater part of the winter.

187-192.] The yield of corn is prognosticated by the walnut. If the tree bears largely, the harvest will be good; if there are many leaves and little fruit, bad.'

187.] A second precept. Contemplator,' Lucr. 2. 114., 6. 189. Nux' is generally taken of the almond after Serv., Isidorus (17. 7) and Theophylact (Nat. Q. 17). Martyn and Keightley, however, understand it of the walnut, which is the more usual sense of the word, and agrees with 'olentis.' 'Plurima' with 'induet,' like "descendet plurimus," E. 7. 60.

188.] Induet in florem,' like "induerat in vultus," A. 7. 20; "In fraudem induimus," Lucr. 4. 817. Curvabit,' as Wagn. remarks, is not strictly accurate, as branches are weighed down by fruit, not by leaves or blossoms.

་

189.] Superare' of abundance, 2. 330. "If a great number of the blossoms set, as the gardeners term it." Keightley.

190.] "Aestus nimios futuros significat, cum abundantia frugum," Serv. He gives the picture of the 'tritura '-hard work and a broiling sun: comp. v. 298., 3. 132 foll. 191.] Foliorum is emphatic, opp. to fetus, umbra' general. If the luxuriance of the shade is merely a luxuriance of leaves.' Emm. comp. the word øvλλoμavɛiv.

186.] "Curculio,' the weevil. This 'larva' is known to be very destructive to corn and flour, but only in the granary. Even with us corn is not left long enough on the barn-floor to be attacked by it." Keightley. Varro, 1. 63, says that when weevils begin to devour corn, it should be carried out and placed in the sun, with vessels of water for the weevils to drown themselves in. Inopi senectae' is rightly explained by Keightley as a poetical expression for the winter, the ant being spoken of

192.] Teret area,' v. 298. 'Nequiquam' with 'teret,' 'pinguis' with 'palea.' Before Heins. the common reading was 'paleae.' The tritura' was performed sometimes by the trampling of oxen, sometimes by the tribulum' or 'trahea' (see on v. 164), sometimes (Col. 2. 21) by 'fustes,' flails or sticks.

Semina vidi equidem multos medicare serentis
Et nitro prius et nigra perfundere amurga,
Grandior ut fetus siliquis fallacibus esset,
Et, quamvis igni exiguo, properata maderent.
Vidi lecta diu et multo spectata labore
Degenerare tamen, ni vis humana quot annis
Maxima quaeque manu legeret. Sic omnia fatis
In peius ruere, ac retro sublapsa referri;
Non aliter, quam qui adverso vix flumine lembum
Remigiis subigit, si bracchia forte remisit,
Atque illum in praeceps prono rapit alveus amni.

193-203.] Steeping seed-beans is a plan often pursued, to make the produce larger and easier to be cooked. But the best seeds will degenerate, unless you pick every year. It is the tendency of everything in nature, and only man's most strenuous efforts can counteract it.'

193.] A third precept. From vv. 195, 196, it seems that Virgil is speaking of leguminous plants: and so the passage is explained by Pliny, 18. 17, Col. 2. 10. But he may be thinking of corn as well, and choosing pulse only as one instance. See on v. 199.

194.] Nitro.' "The virpov.. of the ancients was not our nitre:' it was a mineral alkali, carbonate of soda, and was therefore, used in washing." Keightley. "Amurga,' άuópyn, a watery fluid contained in the olive, of a dark colour, and of greater specific gravity than the oil, which must be carefully separated from it." Id.

195.] Siliquis fallacibus' like "vanis aristis v. 226. Forb. comp. Tibull. 2. 1. 19, "Neu seges eludat messem fallacibus herbis," where both passages seem to be imitated. Here the epithet refers to the general character of the pods of beans, which in this particular case are to be less deceptive than usual.

196.] This line was supposed by most of the old interpreters to refer to what follows, as if Virgil had meant to say that even slightly boiling seeds, as well as steeping them before sowing, was not sure to be effectual. The present punctuation, which was introduced by Catrou, has been generally followed since Heyne's second edition, and is supported by two of the writers in the Geoponics, Didymus 2. 35, and Democritus 2. 41 (referred to by Keightley), as well as by Palladius, 12. 1, who recommend the steeping of beans that they may boil more easily. Madeo' is used in the sense

195

200

of being sodden Plaut. Men. 2. 2. 51, and
elsewhere. Properata' goes closely with
'maderent,' being nearly equivalent to 'pro-
pere.' So " propera atque elue," Plaut.
Aul. 2. 3. 3, is '
'propere elue;' properan-
dus et fingendus," Pers. 3. 32, 'propere
fingendus.'

66

198.] Vis humana' is from Lucr. 5. 206, "Quod superest arvi, tamen id Natura sua vi Sentibus obducat, ni vis humana resistat," where the pessimist feeling is the same as here. See p. 137.

199.] The same precept is given by Varro 1. 52 with regard to corn: and this may be Virgil's meaning. So Col. 2. 9. 'Sic-referri' is not dependent on 'vidi' (a construction which would be plausible, so far as regards the structure of the whole passage), but forms an independent sentence, as the force of the truth of general decay would be greatly weakened, if it were understood as resting. on the poet's individual observation. So it is: all earthly things are doomed to fall away and slip back into chaos, like a boatman who just manages to make head against the stream, if the tension of his arms happens to relax, and the current whirls away the boat headlong, down the river's bed.'

200.] This line nearly coincides with A. 2. 169, where see the note. The metaphor here is sufficiently explained by what follows, the fates answering to the current, the course of nature to the bark, and human labour to the rower. The general sense is not unlike Bacon's celebrated sentence (Essays 24), "If time of course alter things to the worse, and wisdom and counsel shall not alter them to the better, what shall be the end?"