and son, Christian Hindoos. The broad-minded Caliphs, devoted to the cause of science, were led to encourage immigration of learned men irrespective of nationality or religion, and so opened the doors of Bagdad to Greek, Persian, Jewish, and Christian physicians, who became the early teachers and practisers of medicine in the dominion. Rhazes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, Averrhoes, Albucasis, and other notables were their successors in Bagdad, in Spain and elsewhere.

Italy, that may well boast of her great Celsus who contributed to the literary world such an admirable account of practical medicine down to his time, gave birth to very many faithful laborers whose names and deeds so gracefully ornament medical biography. The establishment, twelve hundred years ago, of the renowned Monte Casino school which flourished so many centuries, and out of which came so many illustrious medical men, was the model for the Paris, Montpellier and other schools of medicine. For a long time the medical schools of Italy were wont to send eminent physicians to divers parts of Europe; occasionally as political refugees. Witness the case of Lanfranco (Lanfranc) the Milanese who went to Paris in 1295 and there soon became "Professor in Surgery." Among the more modern Italian physicians of eminence should be specially mentioned Benivieni and Benedetti the two learned physicians of the fifteenth century, Prosper Alpino, Professor at the Padua University. in the sixteenth century and author of Medicina Egyptiorum; Fracastor, as great in poetical as in medical art;

Gaspard Tagliacozzi, the inventor of rhinoplasty; Giovanni di Romani and Mariano Santo, the early lithotomists of that country; Cesalpino, anatomist and botanist; Fabrizzio d'Acquapendente so pre-eminent as anatomist and surgeon; Eustachius, Fallopius, Varolius, Arantius, Baglivi, Lancisi, Malpighi, Bellini, Aselli, Pacchioni, Santorini, Valsalva and Rolando, a glorious group of great discoverers in anatomy, whose names appear so frequently in students' text-books. Italy has since produced very many other men of vast talent who, by their labors have largely contributed to the advancement and enrichment of the science of medicine.

Spain and Portugal, early and late, have sent forth to the world their share of eminent medical men from the time of the Moors to the present.

Belgium may well be proud of her son Vesalius, although he left his native soil to take up residence abroad where he was able, after long and laborious investigation, to prepare his great anatomical work so well, so admirably illustrated.

Holland gave to the medical world the illustrious Boerhaave of whom it is related that he received a letter from a Chinese mandarin with no other address than “Mr. Boerhaave Médecin en Europe." Among the eminent physicians of Holland may be specially mentioned Van Swieten one of the disciples of Boerhaave; the able surgeons Solingen and Stalpart Vander Wiel; and the great teacher of anatomy Ruysch who labored until he had reached the age of ninety-one when, having sustained at

fracture of the thigh bone, he caused himself to be carried into the amphitheatre where he took leave of his pupils, but survived the injury and lived three years thereafter. Three other Dutch anatomists of renown should be named: Paaw, Bidloo, and Nuck.

Denmark has produced, among other celebrities, the three Bartholins-father, son and grandson-all very remarkable men in medicine; Steno the anatomist whose name is given to the parotidean duct; Callisen another distinguished anatomist and surgeon; and the great Winslow who afterward went to Paris as a teacher of anatomy.

Sweden would be well satisfied to have given birth to the great Linnaeus even if she had not produced many other men of much renown.

Norway, Finland, and Russia have furnished their quota of eminent laborers in the advancement of the science and art of medicine.

Germany has contributed very largely to medical science and art during the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. At the head of the list is the honored name of the illustrious surgeon Fabricius Hildanus, who, however, won his celebrity in Switzerland. Then follow Hartmann the historian and the marvelous Albinus; and soon Meibom, Brunner, Peyer, Heister, Vater, Richter, Hebenstreit, Liberkeuhn, Meckel, Gruner, and Hesselbach; all men of great eminence, either as surgeons or as discoverers in anatomy.

Besides those just mentioned there soon arose to pre

eminence many other patient and gifted laborers among whom may be particularly named Kurt Sprengel, celebrated as professor at Halle, and as medical historian; Dieffenbach, the great surgeon; Johann Müller, of cell theory celebrity; and so down to Virchow who, after making prodigious advances in patho-anatomy, devoted his last years to the study of primitive human forms. Many of his survivors are eminent in their several departments of the science and art of medicine.

Austria can boast of her great pioneer patho-anatomist Rokitanski, and of many other workers of the highest rank in medicine and surgery.

Switzerland, also aside from her great Haller, and Plater, has an excellent record in her production of true physicians and learned men, not the least of whom was the erudite Daniel LeClerc, the historian of ancient medicine.

France is justly proud of her sons, the results of whose labors have been such a blessing to the human races ever since the foundation of the great medical schools of Paris and Montpellier. Few of the early works of medical writers of France, during the middle ages, have been preserved; among them those of Gilles de Corbeil (Ægidius Corbeliensis) written in Latin verse during the second half of the twelfth century at Corbeil near Paris. Gilles had studied medicine at the Salernum school and returned to France where he became first physician to King Philip Augustus. He was Dean of the Faculty of Paris and there taught medicine; dying very early in the thirteenth century. Toward the latter part of the same century was

instituted the College of Chirurgery through the efforts of the devoted Jean Pitard who associated with him Lanfranc and others; the result being the uplifting of medical education. Nearly three centuries thereafter, appeared the surgeon of Francis I., Guillaume Vavasseur who, in 1544, obtained for the surgery of Paris the privileges of the University. In the same (sixteenth) century flourished the great teacher of anatomy Jaques Dubois, known as Jacobus Sylvius, who had Vesalius as pupil and Fernel as colleague, and whose name is so well known to students of anatomy of all countries. Then followed Pierre Franco who was skilled in the operation for cataract and in the treatment of herniæ, and who was the first to extract a stone from the bladder by the suprapubic route. He had as contemporary the illustrious Ambroise Paré who so greatly improved on the current surgery from Guy de Chauliac to his time, and who substituted, for boiling pitch and the use of the actual cautery as hæmostatics, the application of the ligature to bleeding arteries, probably without being aware, at the time, that Celsus was believed to have recommended the application of two ligatures to a wounded blood-vessel, one above and the other below the bleeding point, and the immediate excision of the intervening part of the vessel. Mention must now be made of the scholarly Réné Chartier who spent so much time, besides his whole fortune together with that of his family, in translating into Latin, with copious notes, and editing and publishing the works of Hippocrates and of Galen, printed in nine folio volumes.