Emperors, and the Caliphs of Egypt. But the difcovery of a new line of communication with India, deprived Arabia of the advantages of this traffic, and produced the rapid decline of many flourishing cities.

It must have been during the more fplendid ages of the existence of this nation, that the Hamjare Kings reigned over a great part of Arabia. The history of those Princes is fo involved in obfcurity, that we are ignorant even of their origin, and know not to what nation they properly belonged. But they were probably indigenous.

Neither do we know in what period to place the Abyffinian invasion, of which fome authors fpeak. That people must have attacked the Arabs, on purpose to convert them to Christianity. It is even pretended that, after subduing a part of Arabia, they accomplished the purpose of their enterprise, and a great part of the Arabs became Christians. But the circumstances of this event are fo vague, and have fo fabulous an air, that we will be in the right to doubt if it ever took place; or at least, if it was produced by the caufes to which it has been afcribed.

A revolution, of the reality of which we are more certain, and which involved in it more important confequences, was that which Mahomet effected in the religion and the political state of his country. This fortunate ufurper, with the arms of his countrymen, fpread his conquefts over diftant regions. His fucceffors, for a while, profecuted the career of conqueft with the fame fuccefs. But neither he, nor the Caliphs, could ever entirely fubdue their own nation. Many chiefs in the interior parts of the country, ftill maintained their independence, without refpecting the Caliph in any other light than as the head of their religion. The authority of the Caliphs was merely fpiritual, except in their dominions over a part of the coaft, where they were acknowledged as Sovereigns.

After the ruin of the power of the Caliphate by the Turks, Arabia fhook off the yoke to which it had been in part fubjected, and came to be governed, as formerly, by a number of chiefs, more or lefs powerful, defcended from different indigenous families.

No neighbouring power ever attempted to fubdue this country, till the Portuguese penetrated to India, and made their appearance in the Red Sea. Then, in the beginning of the fixteenth century, Sultan El Gury, defirous to rid himself of those new comers, whom he viewed as dangerous, fitted out a fleet to expel the Portuguese. That fleet, availing themselves of the opportunity, feized almost all the fea-port towns of Arabia. But, when the dynasty of the Mamalukes was terminated by the Turks, these cities fell again into the hands of their natural Sovereigns.

The Turks continued the war with the Portuguese, in order to fecure Egypt, their new conqueft. Soliman Pacha, at the head of a powerful fleet, after the example of the laft Sultan of the Mamalukes, feized all the towns upon the Arabic Gulf. His fucceffors pushed their conquefts ftill farther, and fubdued great part of Yemen, penetrating backwards to the highlands; so that Arabia became almost entirely a province of the Sultan of Conftantinople, and was governed by Pachas, like the other provinces of the Ottoman empire.

In the interior parts, however, there ftill were independent Princes and Schiechs, who had never been fubdued, but continued to harafs the Turks, and to drive them. towards the coafts. After various reiterated efforts, a Prince of the family now reigning at Sana, at length fucceeded, about the middle of the laft century, and obliged the Turkish nation to evacuate all the places upon the Arabian coaft, which they had occupied for more than a century. The Turks now poffefs nothing in this country. but a precarious authority in the city of Jidda: And it is therefore abfurd to reckon

M 2

Arabia

Arabia among the Ottoman provinces, fince it is properly to be confidered as independent of all foreign powers.

A people, who like the Arabs, have fo long detached themselves from the rest of the world, cannot undergo any very important revolutions, that may deferve to be commemorated in history. The events which take place among them, are only petty wars and trifling conquefts, worthy of their poor chiefs, and narrow divifions of territory. I fhall not notice them, therefore, unless when in the defcription of any province, fome event comes into view, that is remarkable either for its fingularity, or for its influence upon the affairs of other nations.

CHAP. LXII. Of the Government of the Arabs.

THE most natural authority is that of a father over his family, as obedience is here founded upon the opinion of benevolence in the ruler. When the mournful survivors of the human race fettled themselves anew, after the awful revolution by which the globe was for a time divefted of its beauty, and depopulated; every family fubmitted readily to the guidance and direction of him to whom they owed their existence.

As those families multiplied, the younger branches still retained fome respect for the eldeft branch. Of all the progeny, it was esteemed the nearest to the parent ftem. And, although the fubdivifions became more and more numerous, they still regarded themfelves as compofing but one body, in remembrance of their common origin. Such an affemblage of families, all fprung from the fame stock, forms what we call a tribe. was, in this manner, eafy for the reprefentative of the eldeft branch to retain fomewhat of the primary paternal authority over the whole tribe to which he belonged.

It

Sometimes, when a family became too numerous, it divided from the reft with which it was connected, and formed a new tribe. Upon other occafions, when feveral tribes found themselves feparately too weak to refift a common enemy, they would combine, and acknowledge one common chief. And fometimes it would happen, that a numerous tribe might force fome others that were weaker, to unite themselves to, and become dependent upon it; but seldom has this dependence degenerated into slavish fubjection.

This primitive form of government, which has ever fubfifted without alteration among the Arabs, proves the antiquity of this people, and renders their prefent ftate more inte refting than it would otherwife be. Among the Bedouins it is preferved in all its purity. In other parts of Arabia it has fuffered fome changes, but yet is not materially altered. I fhall have occafion to take notice of thefe, fuch as they are, when I come to defcribe each particular province by itself. For the prefent, I fhall content myself with making fome general reflections upon the fpirit of the Arabian government.

The Bedouins, or paftoral Arabs, who live in tents, have many Schiechs, each of whom governs his family with power almost abfolute. All the Schiechs, however, who belong to the fame tribe, acknowledge a common chief, who is called Schech es Scheuch, Schiech of Schiechs, or Schech el Kbir, and whofe authority is limited by cuftom. The dignity of Grand Schiech is hereditary in a certain family; but the inferior Schiechs, upon the death of a Grand Schiech, choose the fucceffor out of his family, without regard to age or lineal fucceffion, or any other confideration, except fuperiority of abilities. This right of election, with their other privileges, obliges the Grand Schiech to treat the inferior Schiechs rather as affociates than as fubjects, fharing with them his fovereign authority. The spirit of liberty, with which this warlike nation are animated, renders them incapable of fervitude.

This spirit is less fenfibly felt among those who live in towns, or are employed in husbandry. It was eafier to reduce them under fubjection. In the fertile districts of this country, there have always been monarchies, more or lefs extenfive, formed, either by conqueft, or by religious prejudices. Such are the prefent dominions of the Sherriffe of Mecca, of the Imams of Sana and Mafkat, and of fome princes in the province of Hadramaut. However, as thefe countries are interfected by large ranges of mountains, the mountains are occupied by independent Schiechs.

But, although fo many independent chieftains have their domains interfperfed through the territories of thofe feveral fovereigns, yet nothing of the feudal form of government appears here. The Schiechs poffefs no fiefs; they have only a fort of property in the perfons of the people of their feveral tribes. Even thofe who feem to be tributary fubjects to the princes within whose dominions they dwell, are not actually fo. They remain independent; and the tribute which they pay is nothing but a tithe for the ufe of the land of which they are in fome fort farmers. Such are the Schiechs fettled in Syria, Egypt, and over all Mount Atlas.

A nation of this character cannot readily fink into a fervile fubjection to arbitrary power. Defpotifm would never have been known, even in the flightest degree, in Arabia, had it not been for theocracy, the ufual fource of it. The Imams being reputed fucceffors of Mahomet, and his defcendants, and being acknowledged both as temporal and spiritual heads within their dominions, have thus found means to abuse the fimplicity of their fubjects, and to enlarge their authority. Nevertheless, the genius of the people, their customs, and even their religion, are all inimical to the progrefs of defpotifm, and concur to check the Imams in the exercise of their power.

The idea of forming republican governments feems never to have occurred to the Arbians. This form is not a neceffary confequence of the primitive condition of mankind. It must have originated among people whofe patience was exhausted by the outrages of arbitrary power; or fometimes, perhaps, from the fortuitous concourfe of perfons not connected by the ties of family relation. The united states of Haschidu Bekil are not fo much a federative republic, as an affociation of feveral petty princes, for the purpose of mutual defence against their common enemies. Their government resembles that of the German empire, not the States of Switzerland, or the United Provinces. Concerning the pretended republic of Brava, upon the eastern coast of Africa, little certain is known. There is ground for thinking that it likewife is merely a confederation among the Arabian Schiechs in that country.

The colony of Jews, who occupy a district in the province of Hedjas, are governed by a hereditary independent Schiech. Having been for ages divided from their countrymen, they have adopted that form of government which they faw prevalent among their immediate neighbours.

This multiplicity of petty fovereigns occafions feveral inconveniences to the people in general. Wars cannot but frequently arise among states whofe territories are fo intermingled together, and whofe fovereigns have fuch a variety of jarring interefts to manage. But, happily, thefe quarrels are scarcely ever productive of very fatal confequences. An army of a thousand Arabs will take to flight, and think themfelves routed, if they lofe but feven or eight of their number. Thus, are these contests terminated as easily as excited.

No doubt fuch a multitude of nobles and petty princes, whofe numbers are continually increafed by polygamy, must have an unfavourable influence upon the general happinets of the people. It ftrikes one with surprise, to see the Arabs, in a country fo rich and

fertile,

fertile, uncomfortably lodged, indifferently fed, ill clothed, and destitute of almost all the conveniences of life. But the causes fully account for the effects.

The poverty of the wandering Arabs is plainly voluntary. They prefer liberty to wealth, paftoral fimplicity to a life of constraint and toil, which might procure them a greater variety of gratifications. Thofe living in cities, or employed in the cultivation of the land, are kept in poverty, by the exorbitancy of the taxes exacted from them. The whole fubftance of the people is confumed in the fupport of their numerous princes and priests. The inftance of the territory of Zebid, which I adduced in my account of that city, fhews that the husbandman cannot bear fuch exceffive impofts without being reduced to mifery.

One general caufe of the impoverishment of Arabia is, no doubt, its having ceafed to be the channel of the trade with India, fince the discovery of the paffage by the Cape of Good Hope. Yet, if the lands were better cultivated, this country might, without the aid of foreign trade, afford fufficient resources to fupply all its inhabitants with abundance of the neceffaries and common conveniences of life.

OF THE PROVINCE OF HEDJAS.

CHAP. LXIII. Of the general Appearance of this Province, and of fome of the Towns

in it.

HEDJAS is bounded on the east fide by Nejed; on the north by the defart of Sinai; on the fouth by Yemen; and on the weft by the Arabic Gulf. Its interior limits I cannot pretend to know distinctly, having feen only the fea coaft: whatever I may mention concerning the other parts, is entirely from hearfay.

By what I have heard, this district bears an entire resemblance to Yemen. From the fea fhore, a plain, varying in breadth, ftretches backwards to the bottom of a chain of mountains, running in a direction parallel to the Red Sea. This plain, like Tehama, is entirely fandy and barren, with the exception only of the openings of the valleys, which may be watered by torrents from the mountains.

The highlands of Hedjas produce abundance of fruits, and other commodities of various kinds: Yet I have not heard coffee mentioned among their productions. Balm of Mecca comes from thofe lofty regions, and chiefly from the extenfive mountain of Safra, which is a three days journey distant from the Arabic Gulf.

This barren plain cannot be populous. I have mentioned already, that I could fee no towns or villages in my paffage from Suez to Loheia. I have described Jambo, Jidda, and Ghunfude, the only towns or harbours on all this extenfive coaft. The other villages, that may be thinly scattered here and there, are too few and too paltry to merit notice.

In the interior parts of this country, I could discover no confiderable city, except Taaif, fituate upon a lofty mountain, in fo agreeable a country, that the Arabs compare its environs to thofe of Damafcus and Sana. This city fupplies Jidda and Mecca with excellent fruits, particularly raisins, and carries on a confiderable trade in almonds, which grow in great plenty in its territories.

There are fome towns, of no great confequence, belonging to the Schiech of the tribe of Harb. I was alfo told of a charming valley, called Wadi Fatima, between Mecca and Medina, which Mahomet gave for dowry to his favourite daughter Fatima, and which is presently poffeffed by the Dani Barkad, a younger branch of the reigning family of Mecca, and confequently defcendants from that princefs.

The

The curiofities of Mecca and Medina, the two capitals of Hedjas, are fo numerous, that each of these cities must be confidered in a chapter by itself.

THE grand fignior ftyles himself fovereign of Hedjas; and our geographers, upon the faith of that empty title, represent this part of Arabia as a province of the Turkish empire. But, the authority of the Sultan is here nothing but a mere fhadow, which the Arabs would long fince have annihilated, if they had not found their interest in preferving it.

Notwithstanding the lofty pretenfions of the grand fignior, his power in Arabia confifts folely in a few flender prerogatives. He fends yearly caravans to Mecca, with troops to protect them, that are often obliged to make their way by force of arms. Like any other powerful fovereign, when he chooses to oppress a weak neighbour, he can depofe the reigning Sherriffe, and exalt another, while his caravan lords it at Mecca. He fends a Pacha to Jidda, who fhares the government of this city with the Sheriffe, but who dares neither go to the feat of his government, nor return from it, unless when he can be protected by the great caravan. Laftly, the Arabs fuffer the Turkish fovereign to maintain, for the fecurity of the pilgrims, and in order to guard the wells, a few janizaries, cooped up in fome wretched towers.

The revenues which he draws from this pretended province are proportionate to his power in it. The Sultan divides with the Sherriffe the duties paid at the custom-house of Jidda. But, the revenue thus obtained, is not fufficient to defray the expences of the Pacha's household. A Turk, therefore, thinks himself disgraced when nominated to this fine government, and is unhappy till he be recalled.

If the Arabs did not receive, every year, large fums of money, and other advantages of all forts from the Sultan, they would long fince have expelled this handful of Turks from their country. The Sultan allows large penfions to all the Sherriffes, and to the principal nobility of Hedjas, as guardians of the facred family. With these pensions, and the freight of four or five large veffels, which he fends every year to Jidda, laden with provifions, he fupports almoft all the inhabitants of Mecca and Medina. During the whole time, while the pilgrims remain in the city of Mecca, as much water as two thoufand camels can bear is daily diftributed gratis; not to fpeak of the vast number of prefents with which he adorns the Kaba, and gratifies the defcendants of Mahomet.

The principal Arabs likewife gain by the many pious foundations established by the Sultans, or by opulent private perfons among the Turks, at different holy places. Through all the cities of the Ottoman empire are kans, baths, and houses belonging to the Kaba. Some perfons, to fecure their property, after their decease, from the rapacity of defpotifm, bequeath it, failing their own family, to the mofque at Mecca. The revenues of this mofque, and of the Kaba, are fhared between the Sherriffe and the chief nobility of Hedjas. Thefe Arabs would therefore endanger their income, if they offered to break off an apparent dependence, which flatters the Sultan's vanity, without affecting their liberty.

The Sultan no longer commands refpect upon the Arabic Gulf. Poffeffing only a precarious authority over Egypt, and having but a poor navy, he cannot hinder the Arabs from plundering Turkifh fhips, whenever thefe approach fo near to the fhores as to fall into their hands, nor yet punish fuch acts of infolent piracy.

CHAP,