above considerations must be added a close propinquity of the manufacturing centres to river, canal, and sea, which afford methods of transport to all parts of the world far cheaper than any kind of carriage by land. Particularly is it necessary to take note of (a) the educational and technical and (b) the transporting and climatic considerations. The two former will be gradually and successfully dealt with in India; the two latter may never be overcome to the satisfaction of Indian manufacturers. For there is no getting away from the fact that carriage by land over long distances, such as exist in India, is invariably more costly than carriage over much longer distances by sea. And then, too, the attractions of factory life in a warm, bright, sunny climate like that of India, are far less than in the comparatively cold, wet, sunless latitudes of Northern Europe. And, finally, there is the most important problem of market. Although the population of India is large, very large, the general level of education and standard of living are at present low, very low, whilst the general capacity to buy a variety of manufactured articles is, compared with the magnitude of the population (over 315 millions), small, extremely small. It follows that the growth of industries (which depend for cheap production on large markets) is not likely in India to proceed at anything like the pace which is possible in Europe and America, where the general standard of living is higher, where the general level of education is more advanced, than in India, and where natural advantages in the shape of essential raw materials, geographical configuration, temperature and climatic conditions all favour modern types of industrial develop

ment.

Indian statesmen, therefore, if they are wise, will not allow the satisfaction which they naturally feel at the due recognition of their fiscal ambitions to mislead them to the belief that the pre-eminence of the northern latitudes of Europe and America in industrial matters is mainly the outcome of fiscal policy; or that the adoption of a protective tariff by India will in a very short time bring to their native land the same highly profitable but hideous growths of factories and workshops that disfigure and blacken some of the most beautiful districts in Europe and America. Mr. Gandhi, it will be remembered, has taken the view that modern industrialism is an accursed thing which at all costs must be kept out of the sacred soil of India. Long before Mr. Gandhi arrived at this conclusion Mr. C. R. Das, the old Bengali politician, said: ' . . . Industrialism never was, and never will be, art and part of our nature. . . . If we seek to establish industrialism in our land, we shall be laying down with our own hands the road to our own destruction. . . .'' This view, which represents the opposite extreme to that of the Indian Protectionist,

...

is hardly likely to appeal to the politicians of to-day or to the manufacturers and industrialists of Western India. The wise course is undoubtedly the middle and moderate one of encouraging a reasonable industrial development of India as a complement to the vast agricultural activity at present taking place throughout India. And in so doing there is no doubt that a policy of discriminating Protection, on the lines laid down by the Indian Fiscal Commission and applied by way of the import tariff, can play a useful part, by no means a vital, or even the principal, part, but at the same time a really effective stimulus, of the assistance of which India will now take the fullest advantage.

In the manufacturing and industrial developments which it may be reasonably expected will now take place at a somewhat increased pace in consequence of the new policy of Protection about to be inaugurated in India there need be no anxiety in any quarter that one side is going to benefit at the expense of the other. It is sometimes assumed in political circles in India that with the introduction of the new policy of Protection the influx of foreign exploiters, capitalists, manufacturers, and other business people into India will be so great that special legislation will have to be undertaken forthwith to prevent these intruders from reaping all the advantages and carrying away all the profits from protected India! Even were an invasion of the magnitude feared to occur a most improbable contingency—a short calculation of the sums distributed in dividends (even assuming that not a rupee thereof was paid to Indians), and a comparison of this figure with the figures of

(a) The foreign capital expended in India, most of which could never be removed from India, and

(b) The amounts distributed in India in salaries, wages, repairs and renewals, etc., month after month,

should at once convince the sceptic that the balance of advantage is well on the side of India, and must ever remain so. In actual practice, most capitalists from abroad who come to India to establish new enterprises, make a point of raising as much of their capital as possible in India nowadays.

On the other hand, it is sometimes feared in England, especially by British manufacturers and industrialists, that with the introduction into India of a policy of Protection, even if that policy be administered with discrimination and due care for the welfare of the hundreds of millions of poor consumers, as contemplated by the Fiscal Commission, the Indian Legislative Assembly, and the Government of India, still, purchases by India of British manufactures will be seriously checked and a mutually profitable trade brought largely to a standstill. Here again, even if a protective import tariff were erected of a far less discriminating

character than that at present contemplated-a most improbable contingency—a little consideration and study of the factors in India and in England upon which great manufacturing developments are fundamentally based (several of these factors I have mentioned), should quickly remove all such apprehensions. A knowledge of present conditions in India makes it quite obvious that for a great many years to come the products of the West will be extensively needed in India just as the products of India will be widely needed by the outside world. To the changes which will very gradually be made in the character of those products, all sides will assist and contribute, and to the benefit and satisfaction of all.

I may conclude by briefly summarising the various considerations which I have passed in review. India has now definitely changed over from unqualified Free Trade to a policy of Discriminating Protection. This new tariff policy, however, be the scale of protective duties high or low, is unlikely to produce in the immediate future any very great change either in the volume or character of India's foreign trade, and for the reason that factors other than tariffs are the main determining causes of rapid and continuous industrial progress. If India's export trade is still below normal in spite of very good crop out-turns and ample surpluses for export, the explanation must be sought for not in any changes of tariffs in the last two or three years, but rather in the diminution of Europe's purchasing powers consequent upon exhaustion, loss of credit, and moral decadence brought about by the Great War. So long as these conditions continue, India's diminished sales abroad mean diminished supplies of purchasing power abroad wherewith to buy England's manufactures. Further, these conditions tend to stimulate the creation of factories in India to deal with some of these surplus raw products that Europe is now unable to buy. This tendency is emphasised by the recent change of fiscal policy and the definite stimulus to manufacturing enterprise which the introduction of a policy of Protection must give. This will create confidence in India and will assist Indian capitalists and others in enlarging old industries and launching new enterprises. For such enterprises Britain will assuredly be asked to contribute, possibly with capital, certainly with designs, plant, expert technical assistance, and general business co-operation. These new undertakings mean new demands for British machinery, etc., and will in due course help to provide local markets in India for those surplus productions of India the profitable disposal of which is hindered by political and economic difficulties in Europe. So that, all things considered, the prospects ahead consequent upon India adopting a policy of discriminating Protection are quite satisfactory for India, and by no means unsatisfactory for

the United Kingdom. Granted goodwill, confidence, mutual respect and friendly co-operation all round, the changes which the inauguration of the new fiscal policy in India will gradually bring about must, in the long run, prove beneficial to all-to India, to the United Kingdom, and to the Empire generally, which grows in wealth and strength as its component parts develop and expand.

M. DE P. WEBB

(Late member of the Indian Fiscal Commission).

CENTRAL AFRICAN TRIBES: THEIR WARS AND SUPERSTITIONS

AMONG the primitive tribes of Central Africa the customs relating to warfare are peculiar, and are in many instances of a revolting nature. To the civilised mind the act of eating human flesh and offering sacrifices to spirits is inconsistent with the laws laid down for the protection of human beings, and it is not until one has come in contact with fetishists themselves or lived in a country which has been inhabited by them that the idea of cannibalism can be understood.

Comparatively little is known of animistic worship even by those who have lived many years among these animists, for all the knowledge which has been expounded is gained by social contact with these people for comparatively only a few years.

No records can be found regarding the origin of their religion, for they can neither read nor write, so the performing of these religious acts can only be dictated by the handing down from generation to generation of superstitious traditions. Until these people come into contact with the civilised world they cannot be expected, without further enlightenment, to cease committing these acts which they have been taught will protect them from evils they know to exist.

As we who live in a civilised world gain knowledge by instruction and by digesting the brains of others, these primitive people likewise digest the stories which are told nightly around the village fires. They in turn pass these stories on to their children, and so on from generation to generation.

Many of the present-day cannibalistic ceremonies may have their origin in this way.

The folk-lore stories that exist and differ in almost every race are an example of such transmutative force. It is from this folk-lore that the true history of a tribe is obtained.

A well-known legend existing among a certain tribe is that years ago a black serpent which lived in the mountains controlled the rainfall, and in order to obtain sufficient rain it was necessary to sacrifice a maiden each year. The legend continued that if this act was not performed there would be a seven years' drought.