were applied to the soil. The materials used were the Bordeaux mixture, the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, ferrous ferrocyanide mixture, copper borate mixture, ferric chloride solution, ferrous sulphate solution, cupric ferrocyanide mixture, cupric hydroxide mixture, potassium sulphide solution, flowers of sulphur, and sulphosteatite. Although these were applied in various ways, the results were in no case favorable for encouraging the use of fungicides in controlling such diseases,1 and later experiments have, on the whole, verified the results then obtained. The same report also contains a list of twentyfive different mixtures which were applied to pear nursery stock at Geneva, N.Y., the number including various compounds of copper, iron, and zinc. The copper compounds proved to be the most efficient in preventing leaf blight, and no compound was found which has proved to be preferable to the Bordeaux mixture.

One of the most important advances of the year 1894 was made by Bailey.1 In treating a quince orchard with the Bordeaux mixture it was found that the rust (Rastelia aurantiaca) "was certainly less prevalent in the sprayed portion of Colonel Bowen's orchard [Medina, N.Y.] than in the unsprayed part."

Many valuable experiments have been made, and many important results obtained, which cannot be named in this brief account of the ever-widening use of insecticides and fungicides; yet one other disease is of sufficient importance to require special mention. The black knot of plums and cherries is continually threatening the profitable cultivation of these fruits, and in some localities the disease has forced growers to abandon their culture on account of the death of the trees.

Maynard has recorded an experiment in which certain plum trees were sprayed with copper sulphate solution early in the season, and later with the Bordeaux mixture, the last treatment being made July 29. The conclusion drawn from the experiment was that "the number of warts was very decidedly less where treated with the copper mixture than where untreated,

1 Galloway, Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. Agric. 1892, 216 et seq. Fairchild, Jour. of Mycology, Vol. vii. No. 3, 240.

2 Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, Bull. 80, 627.

3 Mass. Hatch Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891, Bull. 11, 19.

and we believe that the plum wart may be held in check by the use of this remedy." This note attracted but little attention, and four years later, when the Cornell station published a bulletin 1 on the same subject, scarcely a person appears to have adopted the remedy. The Cornell experiments were carried on during two seasons, and they showed conclusively that the disease can be treated successfully and profitably by the use of the Bordeaux mixture.

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II. IN CANADA.

Canada was active in taking advantage of the knowledge gained in the United States and in Europe. The experiments of Saunders in destroying the potato beetle were made soon after the discovery of the value of Paris green (see page 60). Through the kindness of Professor Craig, of Ottawa, I have been able to collect the following data regarding the early use of insecticides and fungicides in the provinces. He writes that as far as I know G. W. Cline, of Winona, Ontario, and J. K. McMichael, of Waterford, Ontario, were the pioneers among the practical orchardists in the work of applying insecticides." In reply to a letter, the last-named gentleman kindly writes as follows: "I commenced spraying about the spring of 1883 with a small force-pump, using a number of ingredients, as an experiment to destroy fungi on pear trees.2 In the spring of 1887, I bought a large double-acting force-pump, and sprayed my apple and pear trees with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which I first used in 1885 to destroy fungi, and obtained fairly good results. For canker-worm and other insects I used Paris green. For a few years I sprayed with the carbonate of copper to destroy fungi on the leaves and fruit of apples and pears, but recently the sulphate of copper has been applied for the same purpose." Since neither Mr. McMichael nor Professor Craig know of any grower in Ontario who sprayed any earlier than is stated in the above letter, we may conclude that the former was the first, or at least one of the first, to make such application in that province.

1 Lodeman, Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, Bull. 81.

2 See Ann. Rept. Fruit Growers' Ass'n of Ont. 1889, 36. Mention is here made of the application of hyposulphite of soda in 1887.

I am also indebted to Mr. R. W. Starr, of Wolfville, Nova Scotia, who has taken the pains to write so complete an outline of this branch of horticultural work in the Eastern section of Canada, that the letter is given below in full:

"I can scarcely give dates as to when spraying was first adopted in this province, as the practice has grown up from small beginnings with the fine rose watering-pot and gardensyringe, using solutions of whale-oil soap, tobacco, or hellebore to destroy the currant and gooseberry worm, and thrips on the rose bushes. These methods were in use by the late Hon. C. R. Prescott as early as in the forties at least, and I can remember some experiments of his with tobacco and the soap solution to drive the curculio from his plums, but this was afterwards abandoned for the malet and sheet.

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"In 1875, Mr. A. S. Harris, of Port Williams, who had been fighting canker-worms for two years with poor success, got a small brass hand-pump with single and double orifice nozzle from New York. With this he sprayed his trees, using Paris green, 1 teaspoonful to 10 quarts of water. This was so successful that the next year every one who was troubled with the canker-worm provided himself with a pump and arsenites. Since then the use of the spray has been continuous where needed, large, powerful pumps fitted to casks or tanks and placed upon wagons being used for the purpose. The first of these was gotten up by myself in 1880. I used a common brass cylinder lift and force pump fitted with suction and delivery hose. With this I tried nearly every kind of nozzle made; some are good and some are worthless. The Vermorel as it is now made is, I think, the best for all purposes.

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During the past four years spraying has assumed a much more important place in our fruit industry than formerly. By using the Bordeaux mixture and other fungicides with Paris green, and spraying early and frequently, we find that we can keep in check the black scab on the apple and pear, and the black knot and rot of the plum, as well as destroy the insect pests that seem to have been increasing proportionately as fast as the fruit trees."

Some of the first Canadian publications regarding the use of fungicides appeared in 1888.1 Then appeared formulas for

1 Ann. Rept. Fruit Growers' Ass'n, 1888, 105, 152.

making the eau céleste and the original Bordeaux mixture as first prepared in this country. The latter was given by Dr. Riley, while the former was copied from one of the United States government reports.

This year

In the annual report of the Canadian Experimental Farms for 1890, there is an account of experiments made by Professor Craig for the control of the apple-scab fungus. The copper compounds were here used, and he writes me that "the first work done in Canada on this line was in 1890, under my direction, at Abbotsford, Province of Quebec.. It is safe to say that the Experimental Farm system has led the work in the practical application of fungicides in Canada. [1894] quite a large proportion of our most progressive fruit growers are using Bordeaux mixture in the Hamilton and Grimsby districts of Ontario, the Island of Montreal, the eastern townships of Quebec, and the Annapolis valley of Nova Scotia. In British Columbia, where insects are more injurious thus far than fungous diseases, spraying for the destruction of those foes is more generally practiced than for the prevention of fungous diseases."

The following year a bulletin1 appeared in which were published methods for treating the apple-scab fungus, the downy mildew of the grape, gooseberry mildew, and there were also given directions for making the carbonate of copper, the copper sulphate solution, the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, and the sulphide of potassium solution. This bulletin was soon followed by another 2 report from the same author, in which were mentioned combinations of the ammoniacal copper carbonate with Paris green, and the copper carbonate in suspension and Paris green.

Early in 1891 Fletcher published a bulletin in which were mentioned a great many injurious insects, and information was given regarding the preparation and use of various insecticides. The annual report of the stations for 1891 also contains matter of a similar nature, and thus Canada took her place in the list of those countries engaged in the task of overcoming the innumerable parasites of cultivated plants.

1 Craig, Canada Cent. Exp. Farm, 1891, Bull. 10.

2 Ann. Rept. Exp. Farms, 1891, 144-148.

3 Canada Cent. Exp. Farm, 1891, Bull. 2.

CHAPTER IV.

THE MATERIALS AND FORMULAS USED IN SPRAYING.

No attempt has been made to render the following list of materials and formulas complete. Such a record would require many more pages than can here be devoted to the subject, and in the end the result would be of little value, since the majority of the substances named would be such as have been found to possess no real worth and have in consequence been discarded. But many of the materials formerly recommended did possess merit, and the principal reason for their abandonment has been that other and more effective substances have been brought forward, with the natural result that the first was displaced by the newcomer. Such formulas are frequently interesting as showing the steps which have been taken in the development of preparations now recognized as the best, and they may also assist in doing away with the idea that a fungicide or insecticide must be made in accordance with a certain definite formula in order to be effective. Nearly all the following directions will bear considerable modification, and while it is highly desirable that the rules be followed as closely as possible, since they have been formulated after much experience, minor changes may be made with comparative safety, and good results will still follow. The cost of the more important substances is given; the first figure refers to the wholesale price, while the second one generally refers to the price when the article is bought at retail. ACETO-ARSENITE OF COPPER. See Paris Green, page 121. ALCOHOL. A 30 per cent solution of alcohol when applied in the form of a spray is useful in destroying aphis in greenhouses and in dwellings where the use of other methods is not advisable. See also PYRETHRUM.