students were admitted to the University in 1890-91. The number of female students has steadily increased, and is now 25 per cent. of the total number on the register. This increase of the number of female students has been associated with a gradual diminution of the standard which they have attained at the examinations. More than half of the female students discontinue their studies immediately after passing the University examination. The other half, with the exception of 12 per cent., gradually discontinue their studies. He thinks the examination certificates are obtained at too great a cost, with great strain, and with perhaps an impairment of health for the rest of life. The public health of the nation demands, above all, strong and healthy mothers. In Finnland about 85 per cent. of all females marry. Hence he thinks it is not right that, on account of the 15 per cent. who do not marry, the other 85 per cent. of females should be distracted from their future duties in life by abstract studies. He suggests a female faculty in the Universities. The principal subjects of this faculty should be hygiene, the care of children, the education of children, nursing of the sick, and subjects connected with house-keeping and book-keeping.

Prof. F. Erismann (Zürich) discussed the best position of the windows of schoolrooms with reference to sunlight. He considers it undesirable that a schoolroom should be lighted by direct rays of sunlight passing through the windows. A diffuse daylight is preferable, and therefore the windows of a school-room should be so placed that the light comes from the north-direct north, northeast or north-west.

Dr. Altschul (Prague) discussed the methods which have been employed for determining the degree of brain fatigue, by mental work (calculations, tests of memory, attention, etc.), by the ergograph, and by the æsthesiometer. He considers that none of these methods are free from objections. He does not regard the very extensive work which has been carried out by these methods as useless, but he considers that the results cannot be regarded as a satisfactory indication of the degree of brain fatigue. He suggested that physicians and school teachers should form an international committee, for the reconsideration of the whole of brain fatigue produced by various forms of school work.

Prof. Griesbach replied to this criticism. His observations on brain fatigue are well known. He believes that he has demonstrated, that brain fatigue causes slight diminution of the tactile sensibility of the skin, that this diminished sensibility can be shown by the æsthesiometer, and that the results of measurements made by the æsthesiometer are a reliable indication of the degree of brain fatigue after various kinds of intellectual work. Griesbach brought forward the results of a large number of observations in support of his method, and to the writer of these. notes, it did appear that the severe criticism of Dr. Altschul was scarcely justifiable.

Dr. Vannod, of Bern, followed with a very elaborate paper on Brain Fatigue, which was illustrated by numerous charts and diagrams. He concluded—(1) That intellectual fatigue causes a diminution of the perception of cutaneous sensibility. (2) That the method of Griesbach (examination with the æsthesiometer) is a simple and reliable method of detecting modifications of the cutaneous sensibility. (3) That certain factors act directly or indirectly on the sensibility, and ought to be taken into consideration in observations by this method. These factors are the surrounding temperature, the state of health of the scholar who is the subject of examination (neurasthenia, fatigue from insufficient sleep, nervousness), and the capacity of the scholar for various branches of instruction. (4) That it is desirable that the results of observations should be generalised, and that in town. schools physicians and teachers should simultaneously make examinations of the sensibility with the æsthesiometer, in order that a collection of observations may be obtained, which will show the value of the æsthesiometric method.

Prof. Sakaki Yasusaburo (Tokio, Japan) read a paper, in German, on the results of the measurement of Brain Fatigue in Four Schools in Japan. He had employed Griesbach's method.

Dr. Neuburger (Nürnberg) urged the necessity for examination of school books with respect to type. Cohn's rules (already given in this report) should be accepted.

Profs. Blasius and Wernicke (Brunswick) urged the desirability of instruction in hygiene for all teachers, and of its inclusion amongst the compulsory subjects for teachers' examinations in the future.

Prof. Wernicke (Posen) urged the importance of instruction in hygiene in schools and in training colleges for teachers.

Dr. F. G. Schmidt (Bonn) advocated the erection of school baths, in connection with the school-house, and the teaching of swimming. In the discussion following this paper, a lady (whose name I did not hear) strongly urged the importance of medical supervision of school children with respect to bathing, since, in her opinion, it had an injurious effect on some schoolgirls.

Dr. Leslie Mackenzie (Edinburgh) read a paper on the Medical Inspection of Schools and School Children in Scotland. From the statistics which he produced in his address, it is worthy of note that there are over 14,000 children attending school in Scotland under the age of five years.

Dr. G. E. Shuttleworth (London) read a paper on the Education of Epileptic Children.

Many other papers of importance were read, but in this report only those have been referred to which were of most interest to the writer, and as the contributions were so numerous (180), limited space only permits a reference to a minority of them.

SCHOOL WORK IN NÜRNBERG.

School attendance is compulsory at the end of the sixth year of life. In the elementary schools there are seven classes the lowest class named 1st, the highest the 7th. The number of school hours weekly, both for boys and girls, is as follows:-In the 1st (lowest) class, 20, in the 2nd and 3rd, 26. In the other classes, for boys, 4th, 29 hours; 5th, 30; 6th and 7th, 31: for girls, in 4th to 7th classes, 30 hours.

The school desk commonly used is Rettig's desk. This desk has a raised foot-rest and a back-rest; it can be turned up on end when cleaning of the room is necessary.

The printing of the school-books has received consideration, and in the future only those books will be allowed in which the type fulfils the requirements of Cohn, already mentioned.

School begins in winter and summer, in classes 2 to 7, at 8 a.m., except in December and January, when it commences at 8-15. In the 1st class (lowest) it begins at 9. In class 1 (elementary) the school hours are from 9 to 11 a.m.; and from

2 to 4 p.m. In the other classes, 2nd to 7th, the hours are from 8 to 11 or 12, and from 2 to 4. The following are the intervals of rest or play during school work:-At 9 o'clock, 5 minutes; at 10 o'clock, 15 minutes; at 11 o'clock, 10 minutes; at 3 o'clock, 10 minutes. On Wednesday and Saturday afternoons there is no school attendance; but the scholars attend school on Saturday mornings. The work in the afternoons is chiefly of a light nature, such as drawing, writing and handwork.

Most of the schools are beautifully constructed and are models of cleanliness. In each class-room the length, breadth, and floor spaces are given in large figures on one side of the room. The average number of boys in one class during the last ten years has been 51, the average number of girls 38. The floor space of the class-room is usually over 60 square metres, and the height 3.5 to 4 metres. Most schools have an excellent gymnasium and a beautiful large lecture-room.

In Nürnberg there are fifteen medical school inspectors. All new scholars are examined medically within the first fourteen days after entering school. (If the physical and mental development is unsatisfactory, the commencement of school work is postponed for one year.) A second complete medical examination is made within the first six months, and the results given in a health certificate. The parents are invited to be present at the examinations. The third examination, in which vision and hearing are tested, is made in the last quarter of the first school year.

The general hygienic condition of the school is under the supervision of the school doctor, who is also expected to attend the meeting of the School Board or committee of management, of which he is a member. He has the right of voting on various questions. The school doctor visits each school in his district at least three times in the year. In addition to the systematic examinations already mentioned, medical examination is required on other occasions-when infectious disease is suspected, when school work has been postponed, etc. In the cases of boys, in the last three months of school attendance, if the parents desire. it, the school doctor makes a final medical examination in order to give advice as to the occupations in life for which the boy is suitable, in view of his physical condition.

A full account of the Nürnberg schools is given in a beautiful work" Schulen und Schulgesundheitspflege in Nürnberg," 1904, which was presented as a "Festschrift" to each member of the Congress.

Dr. Schubert (of Nürnberg) has recently published a detailed account of the careful methods of medical examination of school children in Germany-" Der Schularzt," supplement to the " Zeitschrift für Schulgesundheitspflege," No. 10, 1903.

*

Considering that the Congress was the first international assembly on school hygiene, it must be allowed that it was well conducted. Many very valuable and suggestive papers were read: altogether the Congress was a great success; and I believe every Englishman present will always look back with pleasure to the week spent in Nürnberg.

At the end of the last general address, Sir Lauder Brunton (who spoke in German) invited the Congress to hold its next meeting in London, in 1907, and promised a hearty welcome. This invitation was accepted.