open pan the pressure of the atmosphere amounts to about fifteen pounds per square inch, and in order to raise the liquid to the boiling point this pressure must be overcome. If this pressure can be overcome, or at least largely reduced, then the boiling point can be reached at much lower temperatures than 212° Fahr.

The pressure is diminished by the use of air tight pans and of air pumps. Let us suppose that coils of pipe, connected with the escape pipe of the engine, are laid in a large pan, a supply of clarified juice fills the pan, an air-tight cover is put on, and the contained air is partially exhausted by the air pump. The exhaust steam from the escape pipe of the engine is hot enough to cause the juice to boil. Now let us suppose

that the steam from this pan be forced through coils of pipe laid in another air-tight pan filled with juice and more thoroughly exhausted than the first one, it is clear to see that evaporation at a still lower temperature will be secured. Such a combination as above described is called a double-effect apparatus.

A multiple effect would be a multiplication of pans so connected and manipulated that the steam of one will boil the next. The advantages in such arrangements are: (1) lower temperature and less danger of scorching the contents; (2) speed in evaporating the water from the sweets; (3) reduction of cost.

Now if syrup be the end aimed at of course the process would end when a proper degree of concentration has been reached. But if it is desired to make sugar also, then additional process must be employed.

III. Extraction of Sugar.

Under this head we shall give in brief the methods employed with large success at the government experiment stations in 1891.

The diffusion process affords a juice containing both "sugars" and "non-sugars" in acid aqueous solution. As explained, the acid tends to convert cane sugar into grape sugar, and this is prevented by the use of lime.

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The effect of the "non-sugars" is to prevent crystallization and separation of the "sugars": for this reason they are called molasses-makers (melassigenes). Their removal is necessary to the formation of a large "sugar" product. Their removal is partially accomplished in the processes of defecation, i. e., liming, heating and skimming. But there still remain "nonsugars," which are soluble in water and must be separated in some other way. This is now very successfully accomplished by the use of alcohol. The clarified

juices are concentrated until they contain about 55 per cent solid matter, then mixed with an equal volume of 90 per cent alcohol, and thoroughly stirred by blowing air through the mixture.

The impurities of the syrup separate in flocculent masses, and in the course of twenty-four hours they completely settle to the bottom of the tanks, leaving a supernatant fluid that is clear and of a pleasant odor.

The next step is to draw off the clear fluid and subject it to distillation, whereby the alcohol is separated and recovered for future use. The sediment is subjected to pressure by which an alcoholic syrup is obtained and a hard cake left containing more or less of sugar and alcohol. Here is the chief loss of alcohol, but the loss may probably be more than replaced by fermentation and distillation of these "press cakes." Here, however, we encounter the United States revenue laws, and modifications would have to be made in the laws before sugar factories could proceed. In fact, the alcoholic process would require so much alcohol that it cannot be profitably employed unless the sugar manufacturer could be allowed to buy, or manufacture, and use alcohol, almost or altogether free of duty. legislation has been had in regard to this subject we are not prepared to say.

What

"The syrup, freed from alcohol, was passed through the usual sugar house processes of granulation in the vacuum pan and purging in the centrifugals." (Bulle

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tin No. 34, experiments with sorghum in 1891, by Prof. H. W. Wiley.)

The sugar crystallized readily and separated perfectly in the centrifrugals from the syrup in from two to five minutes. By the processes herein before mentioned the sorghum grower of the central States may compete with the grower of ordinary cane in the South. From an acre of good sorghum may be obtained a barrel of nice nearly white sugar, equal in every way to ordinary cane sugar.

The question may arise: "Can the farmer profitably manufacture his own sugar, i. e., on a small scale?" Probably no more than the farmer can manufacture his own woollen goods or make his own flour.

It is doubtful if cane can be profitably raised more than three miles from a central factory, and besides enough cane can be raised within two miles of the factory to supply all of its demands. Such being the fact, the central and northern States must hope to make their own supply of sugar, not by individual factories, but by a system of central factories put up on a large scale and equipped for all the steps of molasses and sugar making.

The amount of sugar consumed in the United States for the year ending June 30, 1890, was about three billion pounds (an average of fifty-five pounds per capita), and there were eighty million gallons of molasses consumed.

The United States produced about one-tenth of the sugar and one-fifth of the molasses. Hence the necessity for increasing our sugar producing crops, viz.: the southern cane and the northern sorghum and the beet.1

To these may be added "corn cane," for a most interesting discussion of which the reader is referred to Science during the month of September, 1893.

-The third annual meeting of the Ohio Academy of Science was held at Columbus on Dec. 28 and 29, 1893. The usual necessary formal business was done, and papers were read on various subjects connected with geology, botany, entomology, ornithology, and a beginning was made in chemistry and astronomy, which have not previously claimed their fair share of attention. The following among the papers read may claim notice here: "On the Evolution of Indian Corn," by Mr. W. A. Kellerman; "Distribution of North American Lepidoptera in Norway," by Prof. F. M. Webster; "On Certain New and Known Marine Infusoria," by Dr. D. S. Kellicott; "Lake Licking; a Contribution to the Buried Drainage of Ohio," by Prof. W. G. Tight; "Further Study of the Wheat Scale," by Prof. A. D: Selby; "On a New Fossil Crustacean from the WaterLime," by Prof. E. W. Claypole; "A Revision of the Lichens of Ohio," by Mr. E. E. Bogue, and "On the Nutritive Value of Common Fruit," by Prof. W. R. Lazenby. Arrangements were also completed for the organization of a Natural History Survey of the State. Three directors were appointed, Professors Claypole, Kellicott and Kellerman, whose duties were simply to enlist and arrange all the volunteer laborers who could be induced to take part in the work and aid them in the choice of fields and in the prosecution of their labors, leaving the whole method or responsibility in their hands as much as if they were independent workers. These results when obtained will be presented to the Academy, by the authors if possible, referred to suitable experts and, at the discretion of the Academy, printed in the annual report. The organization of the undertaking is the most important one of the still young academy. Prof. F. W. Webster, of the Agricultural Experiment Station, was elected president for 1894.

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IN "Orthometry" Mr. R. F. Brewer has attempted a fuller treatment of the art of versification than is to be found in the popular treatises on that subject. While the preface shows a tendency to encourage verse-making, as unnecessary as it is undesirable, the work may be regarded as useful so far as it tends to cultivate an intelligent taste for good poetry. The rhyming dictionary at the end is a new feature, which will undoubtedly commend itself to those having a use for such aids. - A specially interesting chapter is that on "Poetic Trifles," in which are included the various imitations of foreign verse in English. The discussion of the sonnet, too, though failing to bring out fully the spiritual nature of this difficult verse form, is more accurate than might be "The form of expected from the following sentence: the sonnet is of Italian origin, and came into use in the fifteenth [sic] century, towards the end of which its construction was perfected, and its utmost melodious sweetness attained in the verse of Petrarch and Dante." In the chapter on Alliteration there are several misleading statements, such as calling "Piers the Plowman" an "Old English" poem. In the bibliography one is surprised not to find Mr. F. B. Gummere's admirable "Handbook of Poetics," now in its third edition. - In spite of these and other shortcomings, which can be readily corrected in a later issue, this work may be recommended as a satisfactory treatment of the mechanics of verse. A careful reading will improve the critical faculties.-The Dial.

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