means of checking other methods of identification.

The photographs, which are taken full face and profile, are the last methods employed.

The Bertillon system consists in measuring the length of various parts, always at the same spot, and taken in a regular order. These are in the order of their importance: (1) The length of the head; (2) the breadth of the head; (3) the length of the middle finger of the left hand; (4) the length of the left foot; (5) the left cubit, i. e., the forearm and extended hand; (6) the length of the little finger of the left hand; (7) the length of the right ear; (8) the stature. It will be seen that most of the above are practically measurements of parts of the skeleton, and these remain constant when full growth has once been attained. The stature is the least reliable of these measurements. Lastly, the colour of the eyes is noted, and any individual peculiarities, such as moles, scars, tattoo-marks, and the like. In England it has been decided upon to utilise finger-prints according to methods introduced by Francis Galton.

All the measurements are divided into three gradeslong, medium, and short. The limits of these grades have been arbitrarily chosen, so that an approximately equal number of persons will be distributed among the three classes. For example, the length of the head is divided into those that measure less than 183 mm. (millimetres), those between 184 and 189 mm., and those over 193 mm.

A few years ago, when in Paris, I was introduced to M. Bertillon, who explained his system to me. Although the office was officially closed, he very kindly ordered up a thief who had just been captured, and this unfortunate was made the subject of a demonstration.

First of all, the measurements were taken according to the prescribed method, the man submitting with a half-smile of amusement. The length of his head was 189 mm., and,

therefore, just within the middle grade, but being 148 mm. broad it belonged to the lowest breadth grade; his left middle finger measured 92 mm.; the left foot, 259 mm.; the left cubit, 452 mm.; and so on.

The cards of the particulars of the men, women, and children are kept in separate presses. The attendant then went to the press for the male criminals to see if this was an old offender. The press is divided horizontally into three sections for head lengths, the uppermost being for the small grades and the lowest for the longest heads. Each of these is similarly divided vertically, according to the breadths of the head. Thus the man was to be found in the middle compartment of the left-hand series. This, like the other compartments, is divided horizontally into three series for the length of the left middle finger, and each of these again for that of the foot. Lastly, these last are divided vertically for the three grades of the left cubit. By this simple system the first five measurements can be rapidly classified into 243 divisions, each of which is a drawer. When the drawer corresponding to the thief's measurements was opened, I saw that it was further subdivided according to other measurements, and in less time than it takes to describe it two or three cards were taken from one division. The actual figures of the thief's measurements were compared with those on these cards, and one was picked out on which they exactly corresponded. There was in no case a difference of more than a millimetre. The old card stated that there were certain scars and marks, the positions of each being fixed by measurement from named parts of the body. On examining the man, these were found to correspond accurately. The photographs which were appended to the old card were kept carefully covered up. On looking at them the likeness was recognisable, and the man was told the name he had formerly given as his own, and the details

of his previous convictions. The demonstration was perfect, and, to do our criminal friend justice, he could not forbear from smiling at the celerity and neatness of the identification. The only source of uncertainty is when the figures lie just on a border-line, in which case the two series have to be examined.

It takes two minutes to completely measure one individual; the record of the scars, particular marks, tattooing, etc., three minutes; the writing of the name, age, etc., according to the statement of the subject, two minutes—or a total of seven minutes for the whole operation. A minute or two suffices for actual identification of the criminal, supposing he has been measured before.

The beauty of this system is its absolute certainty, for everybody has some particular marks, such as moles, scars, etc. Three or four of these, if actually recorded, would be quite enough to enable a man to be identified out of a million. The photograph is superfluous, and it is immaterial what name the man gives.

This system of identification is one of the principal applications of anthropology and its methods to ordinary life, and its utility is beyond question.

2. Anthropological Measurements as a Test of Efficiency.— It is often important that the physical fitness of people should be tested in order to see how they stand in relation to other people, and to discover certain physical imperfections. Apart from this occasional examination, it is most desirable periodically to "take stock" of our bodily efficiency, in order to see whether our powers are becoming impaired in any way, and, if so, to take precautions; especially important is this in the case of children and young people generally. This is one of the reasons which induced Dr. Francis Galton to establish his well-known anthropometric laboratories.

As an example of what can easily be done, let us consider the measurement of eyesight. Measurement would give an indication of the eyesight becoming less good, long before the child would find it out for himself, or before its impairment could attract the observation of others. It is frightful," writes Dr. Francis Galton," "to think of the frequent mischief to eyesight that has been caused by the neglect at schools of the most elementary requisites to protect it from unnecessary strain, such as an abundance of light coming from the proper direction, and desks and chairs so shaped as to discourage a lolling or sidelong attitude, by supporting the book and paper squarely before the reader. The stupid want of care in providing these essentials to eye-comfort has gone far towards converting the educated classes of Germany and the cultured girls of England into short-sighted sections of society. When measurement shows that the sight is beginning to be slightly impaired, there is probably time to hunt out and abolish the cause of the mischief before serious harm is done, and an occasional small fee would be little grudged by most persons to insure so timely a warning of danger."

The existence of colour-blindness is another possibility well worth being inquired into at an early age, as it materially limits the choice of occupation. "It is curious," writes Dr. Galton," how late it may be in life before this remarkable defect is found out either by the person or his friends; and as it affects about one male in twenty-five, the risk of being subject to it is considerable."

For the last ten years there has been an anthropometrical laboratory in Cambridge, during which time a very large number of students have been physically tested, and as the great bulk of the men belong to the same social grade, we have a very valuable series of statistics concerning what may be called the professional and gentle classes, and who repre

'F. Galton, “Why do we Measure Mankind?" Lippincott's Magazine, February, 1890.

sent as good a type physically as any class of Englishmen under existing social circumstances can be expected to show. Some years ago Dr. Venn worked up the then available statistics on over 1000 men in an interesting paper on “Cambridge Anthropometry," in which he grouped the students into three classes:

(A) A first-class man in any tripos examination, or one who is a scholar of his college.

(B) All the remaining "honour men."

(C) Candidates for the ordinary degree, or "poll men." Owing to the system of examinations in Cambridge and the knowledge of the men by their tutors, these three classes can be determined with great accuracy, even in the case of undergraduates.

What is the difference in the physical characteristics of our A, B, and C classes? We need not trouble ourselves with the statistics themselves, but merely note the main results.

In respect of height, weight, breathing, and squeezing power, there is little or no difference between any of the classes.

In respect of eyesight there is a decided inferiority in the A's, as compared with the B's and C's taken together.

In respect of the “pull" a similar inferiority of A to B and B to C is manifest.

In respect of head measurement there is a decided superiority of A's over B's and B's over C's.

2

Dr. Galton, who has gone with more detail into the head growth of these students, says:

"We find that a high honour' man possesses at the age of nineteen a distinctly larger brain than a 'poll' man (that is, a

2

Fourn. Anth. Inst., xviii., 1889, p. 140.

F. Galton, "On Head Growth in Students at the University of Cambridge," Nature, May 3, 1888; Journ. Anth. Inst., xviii., 1889, p. 155.