Encyclopedic tendency still persists in some texts. — Since this statement by Ritter was published, the organization of the subject matter of geography has improved as the result of the labors of Ritter and his followers. Hence we have some textbooks in which the full treatment of fundamental geographic relations or topics is provided. But in many of the books the material continues to be organized as it was in the books that Ritter criticized, namely, with artificial political divisions serving as the starting point for the discussion, and with the information concerning each division set forth largely as isolated items or facts.

Regional geographies furnish an exception. — Exceptions to this encyclopedic tendency in geography teaching are the Oxford geographies, edited by A. J. Herbertson and published in England, and the methods advocated in the books by Charles McMurry in America. The Herbertson geographies place the emphasis on great "natural regions" (as was done by Humboldt, Ritter, Guyot, and other great geographers of the nineteenth century) instead of placing it on political divisions. For example, in the introduction to the study of Europe the first chapters are entitled The Seas and Lowlands, The European Highlands and their Rivers, The Climate of Europe, Plants and Animals, The Human Geography of Europe. These chapters are followed by discussions of the larger natural divisions of Europe, such as the Scandinavian peninsula, Central Europe, the Alps regions, etc. When an example of one of these types of regions has been thoroughly studied, it furnishes a basis for readily understanding and interpreting any similar region in any part of the world. That is, the relatively complete study of certain fundamental geographic relations in a typical example leaves a general impression that may be applied very widely by the student in his later thinking. For a discussion of the natural regions of the earth considered as a whole, see Herbertson's "Senior Geography" (9) and his paper on "The Major Natural Regions." (8: 301-312)

Type studies advocated by McMurry. In America we are more familiar with this type method in geography in connection with the books of Charles McMurry. The general pedagogical principles involved are discussed at length by the McMurry brothers in "The Method of the Recitation" (1903), perhaps the most widely used and certainly one of the best books dealing with methods of teaching published in America. Illustrative lessons which are printed in the book show very clearly what is meant by the type method. For example, on pages 17-24 is printed à long lesson on Minneapolis, which is intended to give pupils an understanding of the development of manufacturing and commercial cities by means of a careful, detailed study of one typical example and a comparison of it with a few other selected examples. Similarly, on pages 257–269 there is a lesson on irrigation which provides a comparatively thorough general understanding of this important topic by means of a careful, detailed study of one irrigation system (the Big Ditch near Denver) and a comparison of this with a few other selected examples. These sample lessons should be examined and Chapter X (pp. 236256), entitled The Value of Types, should be read.

Encyclopedic tendency dominant in history textbooks. History is another subject in which the encyclopedic summary of hundreds of relatively isolated and meaningless facts has been prominent. This fact is so patent that it scarcely needs to be elaborated. Simply call to mind some of the most widely used historical textbooks, and many of them will serve as examples of the encyclopedic tendency. Instead of treating a few large, important issues in a thorough manner, so that students will get some real understanding of historical relationships and developments, thousands of items of information are provided on the same dead level of insignificance.

Robinson's texts furnish an exception. There are some pleasing exceptions to this unfortunate rule. Several of the recent textbook treatments of the Middle Ages and the

Renaissance are good examples. For instance, in Professor J. H. Robinson's "History of Western Europe" the chapters on The Crusades, Heresy and the Friars, and The Italian Cities and the Renaissance are treatments of big historical topics, or units, in such a concrete manner as to give the student some definite and lasting impression of what the historical situation in each case was like. In his preface Robinson says:

It has seemed best, in an elementary treatise upon so vast a theme, to omit the names of many personages and conflicts of secondary importance which have ordinarily found their way into our historical text-books. I have ventured also to neglect a considerable number of episodes and anecdotes which, while hallowed by assiduous repetition, appear to owe their place in our manuals rather to accident or mere tradition than to any profound meaning for the student of the subject.

The space saved by these omissions has been used for three main purposes. Institutions under which Europe has lived for centuries, above all the Church, have been discussed with a good deal more fullness than is usual in similar manuals. The life and work of a few men of indubitably first-rate importance in the various fields of human endeavor- Gregory the Great, Charlemagne, Abelard, St. Francis, Petrarch, Luther, Erasmus, Voltaire, Napoleon, Bismarck - have been treated with care proportionate to their significance for the world. Lastly, the scope of the work has been broadened so that not only the political but also the economic, intellectual, and artistic achievements of the past form an integral part of the narrative. (13: iii)

It is to be hoped that more textbooks in both history and geography will be constructed with the purpose of providing an understanding of the topics treated, instead of being constructed as if they were to serve as miniature encyclopedias for reference purposes.

Type studies common in biology.—A subject in which the use of type studies has received quite general recognition is

biology. This point is brought out in the following quotation from Lloyd and Bigelow's "Teaching of Biology."

There seems to be no question that an elementary course in zoology in a secondary school should be based upon and consist largely of the study of a series of types, or examples, representing the most important groups of animals. No other plan is adaptable to the modern laboratory method of teaching the principles of the science, and concentration of attention upon a limited number of forms undoubtedly results in the most satisfactory training in the method of scientific study. Even from the standpoint of the acquisition of information the type method has great advantages over the alternative plan of dealing in generalized comparative terms with characteristics of a group of animals with most of which the students must be entirely unfamiliar. (10: 357)

The same general principle applies in the teaching of botany, but in order to become familiar with the different interpretations of the type method in this subject the student should read also pages 106-115 of the book from which the above quotation is taken.

Examples of intensive study in other subjects. — It is in the content subject that the more intensive thorough treatment of fewer topics is especially important. The discussion up to this point has contained illustrations from geography, history, and biology. It is a simple matter to provide further examples from chemistry, physics, domestic science, and possibly from other subjects. Similarly, in the constructive subjects, such as art and manual training, we find a tendency to get away from the courses of study made up of isolated detailed exercises and to substitute work on larger projects.

Many supporting details necessary in intensive study. The part played by details in the intensive treatment of a few topics, as contrasted with the part which they play in the superficial encyclopedic treatment of many topics,

deserves special consideration. There will be just as many details used in the former method as in the latter, but their character and purpose will be quite different.

In the encyclopedic treatment of many topics we find thousands of details that are more or less isolated in character. They do not contribute to form a general impression or general idea, but often seem to be on the same dead level of insignificance. On the other hand, the details provided in the intensive treatment of a few large topics are carefully selected and arranged for the purpose of contributing to the better understanding of the general topics. They may be spoken of as supporting the general principle or general impression. They may be said to make the matter under consideration meaningful. Thus, the statements, "Petrarch was the leading Italian humanist of the fourteenth century; he wrote sonnets in the vernacular, was active in searching for classical manuscripts, and wrote a Latin poem entitled Africa,' are relatively meaningless for most pupils, because they present a few ideas without sufficient filling-in of supporting details to give them meaning. These statements will be filled with meaning, however, if the pupil will read Robinson and Rolfe's "Petrarch." Here he will find the account of Petrarch's passion for Laura, and will get the sonnets to her placed in their human setting; he will learn of Petrarch's journeys to different places in search of manuscripts, of his adventures on the road and at wayside inns, etc.; and he will get an insight into Petrarch's ambition to emulate the ancient classical writers and to be crowned with the laurel wreath at Rome.

Details necessary to give meaning but do not constitute meaning. These details will have served their purpose when they have built up in the pupil's mind the meaning of the statement about Petrarch with which we began. It is; not necessary that they be remembered in order that this meaning may be and remain perfectly clear and adequate for