8. The most effective use of various sources for enriching pupils' experiences, involving a consideration of

(a) Books as sources; recitation and reference methods. (b) The pupils' own objective experiences, both present and past, as sources; laboratory and conversational methods. 9. The planning of instruction to assure that definite and valuable experiences are to be provided.

10. The testing of teaching, as a check to determine how effectively the purposes have been attained.

11. The observation of teaching, to show the practical applications of educational theory.

Principles based on scientific evidence and expert opinion. -In the discussions which follow, it will be possible in some cases to present well-established scientific conclusions as the theoretical basis of the principles under consideration, and to indicate how the latter have been carried out in successful practice in typical high schools. In other cases, however, there may be no stronger evidence in favor of the principles advocated than the opinions of some of the best-informed thinkers about education who have written since the time of John Locke (1632-1704). These opinions may not be valid, but the chances are that they are nearer the truth than the opinions of persons who have not devoted considerable study to pedagogical problems. In any case, they serve the purpose of introducing the student to the problems, and prepare him to appreciate and perhaps contribute to the more valid experimental determination of the best methods of instruction, which promises to play such a large part in future educational endeavor.

Observations of classes should supplement study of the text. In order to relate the discussions in each chapter to practical situations, instructors who are using the text and have facilities for observation should utilize the directions given in Chapter XXIII. Observations should be required early in the course, in order to furnish students with fresh

concrete examples of the general principles under discussion. The suggestions provided by the author may be modified to suit local needs, but in every case it is desirable to provide the observers with definite questions or points upon which observations and subsequent discussions may be based.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

PARKER, S. C. The Present Status of Education as a Science in the Field of Methods. School Review Monograph No. II. (University of Chicago Press, 1912.) Pp. 135-150.

THE BOSTON LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL, FOUNDED 1635

From Monroe's "History of Education." The contrast between this simple building in the yard of King's Chapel and the magnificent Chicago high school shown in the frontispiece is paralleled by a similar contrast in the aims and curricula of the secondary schools of the seventeenth and twentieth centuries

CHAPTER II

BROADENING PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL

INSTRUCTION

To the student. At the beginning of each chapter will be found a brief statement of its main points. This should be read in order to get a general notion of what is to come, but need not be learned until the chapter is finished, when it may be studied as a summary of the chapter. The pedagogical value of reading these summaries is stated in the quotation from Herbart on page 307 of this text.

Main points of the chapter. I. It is important that high-school teachers should have a clear understanding of high-school purposes, in order to be able to plan their instruction to best advantage.

2. Historically, secondary schools have changed from institutions for a few select students to institutions that train many types of boys and girls for many vocations.

3. Along with the broadening of the vocational training provided in high schools has come a broadening of the conception of a liberal education to include a sympathetic understanding of contemporary civilization.

4. The broad, ultimate aims of high-school instruction include social efficiency (economic, domestic, and civic), good will, and the harmless enjoyment of leisure time.

5. The more detailed or immediate aims of instruction include health, information, habits, ideals, and abiding interests.

Necessary for teachers to appreciate purposes of instruction. One of the most striking developments in recent educational history is the rapid change that has taken place in the prevailing conceptions of the purposes of high-school

education. This change of conception affects not only the curriculum and organization of the high school, but it affects also very vitally the individual teacher in the teaching of his particular subject. If the purposes of the whole institution are modified, it follows naturally that the purposes and methods within the individual subjects must often be modified accordingly. The importance of this fact is not always realized by teachers and administrators, with the result that many maladjustments arise.

Poor adjustments result from different purposes of administrators and teachers. For example, an administrative officer may try to reform a system of schools, or a single school, without first gradually and carefully initiating the teachers into the spirit and purpose of the reforms. As a consequence the teachers go on in their old ways or strive more or less blindly and ineffectually to readjust themselves. The resulting strain and stress commonly bring about numerous resignations, sometimes including that of the administrator who has tried to institute the reforms. A most striking example of such a situation occurred in one of our American systems toward the end of the nineteenth century. An administrator who failed to put through his reforms because of failure to get his purposes understood was succeeded by a man who had the same purposes but who started to put them into effect by a gradual and careful education of the other workers in the system into an understanding of his ideas. His efforts were characterized by complete success, in striking contrast with the failure of his predecessor.

Extreme differences of opinion exist concerning high-school purposes. A high-school teacher going into a new situation would do well to inform himself concerning the conceptions of purpose which prevail in the situation in question. Owing to the rapid change that has been taking place, there exist at the present time the most radical differences of opinion concerning purposes. These extreme differences are

sometimes found between high schools within the same city,1 and commonly center in the antithesis between cultural and vocational purposes, or in the antithesis between aristocratic and democratic purposes. In order to provide a better understanding of these disagreements, we shall consider briefly the historical evolution of secondary schools, of which our present type of high school is the most recent development. Suggestions from historical development of high-school purposes. — Aristocratic or selective purpose in Latin grammar schools (1500-1750). — The fact that the secondary schools were originally selective and hence more or less aristocratic in purpose is well illustrated from the writings of Martin Luther (1483-1546), who, in the sixteenth century, was active in stimulating the organization of both elementary and secondary schools. The selective purpose of the latter as schools to train leaders is well set forth in the following quotation :

I hold it to be incumbent on those in authority to command their subjects to keep their children at school; for it is, beyond doubt, their duty to ensure the permanence of the above-named offices and positions, so that preachers, jurists, curates, scribes, physicians, schoolmasters, and the like may not fail from among us; for we cannot do without them. . Wherefore, let magistrates lay these things to heart, and let them keep a vigilant lookout; and, wherever they see a promising lad, have him pledged at school.

The elementary school was to be for all children, according to Luther, but it was the "promising lads" with whom the secondary school was to be chiefly concerned. In England and America these secondary schools were known as Latin grammar schools.

Practical value of grammar schools decreased with decline of Latin. Though the curriculum of the Latin grammar

1 See the School Review, November, 1911, Vol. XIX, pp. 585-595, and October, 1912, Vol. XX, pp. 559–563, for a discussion between two New York City high schools,