time. Such facts as those given in the previous paragraph show that the necessary range of variation in skilled teaching of a given topic is not as wide as is implied in this contention. There is variation, but it is within limits that can be anticipated by the skilled teacher who has mastered the subject matter thoroughly and who sees clearly the fundamental purposes and relative values involved in the series of lessons. Hence, while the actual carrying out of a plan will be adapted to circumstances, a teacher will usually not depart from the fundamental lines that he has planned. There are some supervisors who criticize practice teachers for failure to follow up every chance interest which is expressed during a recitation. Such criticisms are based on a wrong conception of the purposes of instruction. Skilled teaching consists in stimulating and directing mental activity so as to accomplish certain specific aims and results; it does not consist simply in arousing any mental activity that may be secured by taking advantage of any chance interest. Even if the interest which is expressed presents valuable possibilities, it is not necessary to follow it at the time; a tactful expression of appreciation on the part of the teacher and postponement until some other time are sufficient.

But more serious consideration needs to be given to unforeseen difficulties encountered in the teaching of a lesson or series of lessons. These seldom occur with the teacher who has taught the same topics to similar classes a number of times. They will be quite frequent, however, with practice teachers. The plan should be readjusted so as to provide for them, but not so as to lose sight of the purpose of the lessons.

Example of routine directions to practice teachers and supervisors. Some additional suggestions concerning the organization of practice teaching may be secured from the following extracts from the author's "Handbook for Practice Teaching," which is used as the basis of administration of this work in The University of Chicago.

THE CONDUCT OF PRACTICE TEACHING

1. General purpose and character. The purposes of this work are (a) to help students to appreciate educational theory by themselves putting it into practice, and (b) to train them in those practical adjustments which constitute effective teaching. Generally speaking, the sooner a student teacher can be prepared to do some effective teaching, the better. Observation which follows some attempt at teaching is more valuable than that which precedes teaching.

2. Duties of student teachers. a. The student is responsible for understanding and appreciating the work of the term in the subject assigned for practice, and any other phases of the curriculum of the school or the work of the grade that the critic teacher desires to take up.

b. The student is responsible from the beginning for participating and assisting in the activities of the room - for example, correcting papers, gathering materials, assisting individual pupils, etc.

c. As a rule the student will be assigned at first some easy subtopic in a larger unit and allowed to teach from one to five lessons, thus being initiated gradually into the work.

d. The number of periods of teaching will be increased as the student becomes capable of assuming them.

e. Student teachers are expected to attend critic meetings which are arranged by critic teachers. These will be frequent during the first part of the quarter.

f. Student teachers should get ready to begin teaching as soon as possible, and are held strictly accountable for expected results. g. The student is primarily responsible to the critic teacher in whose place he teaches. He may be referred to the appropriate department in the College of Education for assistance in securing the material needed in preparation for his teaching.

3. Reports by critic teachers. —Reports from the critic teacher are filed with the dean. These reports will be made the basis not only for credits in the course but also for later recommendations to positions.

The points outlined below are considered in making these reports, which characterize very definitely and in detail the individuality of the student teacher. This does not mean that the critic teacher reports on each point in every case, but that he emphasizes

those points that are especially significant for the particular student teacher concerned. The critic also adds comments on any other notable aspects of the student's work.

a. Preparation of lessons. Clearness of purpose; originality; thoroughness; organization of subject matter; appreciation of relative values; mechanics of plan-arrangement; paragraphing, conciseness of statement, writing, etc.

b. Skill in conducting recitations.- In exposition, or telling; questioning; holding attention and interest; reaching individuals; using children's experiences and responses; keeping lessons organized; economizing time; securing and fixing definite results; using blackboard and other means of illustration; care of pupils' English; assigning study lessons, etc.

c. Ability to manage children.- General attitude formal, informal, severe, sympathetic; systematizing and economizing routine; handling distracting or disturbing elements; maintaining authority; decision; consistency, etc.

d. Personal fitness for teaching. - Health; energy; sense of responsibility; intelligence; knowledge; willingness; attitude toward criticism; promptness; persistence; animation; general culturerefinement; courtesy; confidence, poise; neatness; carriage; voice, enunciation, etc.

e. General rating of teaching (as excellent, good, fair, barely passable, unsatisfactory).

Conclusion of discussion of practice teaching and lesson planning. This will conclude our discussion of practice teaching and lesson planning. It is probable that during the next decade prospective high-school teachers will be provided with means for such activity. In order that large profit may be secured from a small amount of practice, it is important that schemes for practice teaching be carefully routinized and that the general principles of practice be applied. These include a correct distribution of time and very careful planning of lessons in order to secure a correct start. The careful organization of subject matter in the form of a brief, and the preparation of pivotal questions, are among the most important elements in correct planning.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

1. CHARTERS, W. W. Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson & Co., 1912.) Pp. 414-434.

2. MCMURRY, F. and C. The Method of the Recitation. (The Macmillan Company, 1903.) Pp. 329–339.

3. STRAYER, G. D. The Teaching Process. (The Macmillan Company, 1911.) Pp. 167–223.

4. University of Wisconsin. Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin High School (1914). A unique scheme of mixed observation and practice teaching has been organized in this institution. Student teachers participate in all the work of a high-school class and may be called on at any moment to "do the next thing” either in the form of reciting or of teaching.

CHAPTER XXII

MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING

Main points of the chapter. 1. Careful testing of the results of teaching is necessary in order to determine to what extent its aims and purposes are being achieved.

2. In order to avoid the extremes of overemphasis and neglect of testing, routine provision for frequent short written tests should be made, but only a small part of the recitation periods should be used for this purpose.

3. The tests should be so conducted as to show the real relative abilities of the students.

4. The possibility of securing satisfactory testing varies with the different types of learning; it is easy to test the acquisition of information, but almost impossible at present to measure the development of habits of enjoyment.

5. Tables of distribution of the grades made by all the students in the class should be shown and each student informed of his own standing with reference to the rest of the group. Comparisons between individuals should be avoided, however.

6. In order to measure the relative achievements of different classes and schools, and the relative efficiency of different methods of instruction, more reliable units and scales for rating achievement in the various subjects are necessary.

7. Such scales are being rapidly developed in several subjects, and permit of more impartial, objective, precise, and verifiable investigations of the results of teaching than prevailed until recently.

Measurements of results show whether purposes have been achieved. In connection with all the processes of learning and instruction that have been discussed in preceding chapters it is important to measure frequently the results that are being achieved, in order to determine to what extent the