book the language becomes more and more technical, until he encounters such sentences as are contained in the quotation given above near the bottom of page 206. Obviously, a high-school student introduced to the book at this point would have great difficulty in reading it.

Another type of mistake in using textbooks is illustrated in the use of Thorndike's "Principles of Teaching," with which readers of this book are probably familiar. One third of Thorndike's book is devoted to exercises or problems which it is expected will occupy two thirds of the student's time when he is studying the book. Yet I have known instructors who used the "Principles of Teaching" as a required textbook but did not have the students study the exercises at all. This shows that even when a textbook is so constructed as to provide especially for reflective thinking, teachers may fail to use it so as to secure this desirable mental activity. Such misuse of textbooks leads Thorndike to say:

Many of the evils attributed to the overuse of textbooks are really due to misunderstanding and misuse of them. In the case of a good textbook there is a reason for every item and for its position in the whole. Too few teachers know the exact purpose of the textbooks they use. Too often a teacher uses a section of a book much as a savage might use a coat to cover his legs, or as a child uses a saw to cut a string, scissors to cut a board, and a padlock as a bracelet. (4: 166)

Review principles that apply. In the use of the textbooks the following sets of principles, discussed at length above, should be applied by the reader: (1) Principles of economy in handling materials, discussed on pages 34-41; (2) economy in memorizing (pp. 153-164); (3) reflective thinking (pp. 171-176, 191, 203, 206-212); (4) distinction between studying and reading for enjoyment (p. 262); (5) avoiding verbalism (that is, words without ideas) and putting the pupil in the right frame of mind (pp. 301-311);

(6) arousing interest in assignments (pp. 338-339); and (7) assisting pupils while they are studying the textbook (pp. 411-417). The specific application of these principles to the use of the textbooks need not be elaborated here.

Textbooks furnish most economical basis of instruction. — If properly constructed and used, textbooks provide the most economical form of instruction. As compared with the lecture method, for example, Thorndike estimates that "the actual facts, principles, and applications given in a college course of ninety hours can often be printed in a book that a capable reader could get through in nine hours." (4: 162)

Textbook may train in reflective study. Moreover, if properly constructed and used, textbooks may not only serve as a source of information but also provide directed training in reflective thinking. The construction of textbooks to provide such training in other subjects than mathematics has been treated at length in the chapter on reflective thinking (pp. 171-176).

In order to secure reflective study instead of mere memorizing, two practices are desirable: (1) assignments should be so made as to necessitate a study of the textbook in order to comprehend it and to secure answers to problems or questions which involve analytical study; (2) the recitation period should be used largely for interpretative and supplementary discussions instead of simply for testing to determine whether the students have studied their lessons. If the method of supervised study is employed, the text assignment will be taken up for discussion before it is read completely by the students; then the class will be put to studying it while the teacher passes around the room and supervises. The objective results in the form of outlines, etc., described above on page 412, should require reflective attentive analysis of the assignment.

Use recitation for interpretation and application. — The common practice of using the class period for mere repetition of material learned in the textbook is one of the most

pernicious sources of waste and lack of interest to be found in schools. Time is wasted because nothing new is provided for those who have learned their lessons, and interest is lacking for the same reason. Almost the only way to secure interest in such recitations is by appeals to emulation or to the desire to show off, or through fear of some penalty. Instead of such recitations the teacher should raise questions which keep the pupils actively thinking because they involve (1) interpretation, (2) criticism, (3) supplementing, or (4) application along the lines studied in the assignment. The fact that the major part of the recitation period is to be given up to this type of activity does not mean, however, that quizzing to determine whether the lesson has been learned should be omitted altogether. The latter practice should also be specifically provided for, as will be described in a later chapter on testing.

Supplementary reading. Provide definite assignments to sufficient duplicates. -- A most fruitful and valuable method of instruction is to have one or two required textbooks possessed by all students in the class, and to supply in addition to these a sufficient number of duplicate copies of a few closely related books, which will be kept on reserve in the library or classroom for the use of all classes that are studying the subject which they cover. These may consist of other textbooks or of source books or more general treatises. Sometimes these may be read and studied in class, as described above on page 38. The value of such critical, interpretative treatment of printed material is self-evident. The justification for equipping schoolrooms and libraries for this purpose is set forth by Keatinge in the following quotation, which follows his discussion of the using of sources in history for the solution of problems, as described above on page 174.

For work of this kind it is essential that the apparatus, that is to say, the documents, shall be in the pupils' hands. Documents as read to a class have their value as giving atmosphere, but for the present purpose each boy must have his own book of extracts,

which can be supplemented on the part of the teacher by [mimeo-] graphed slips. The science teacher is not expected to obtain results without apparatus; each boy is provided with his bench, his balance, his test tubes, and his water tap. It would be in the highest degree unreasonable to ask the history teacher to convert his subject into an educational instrument with nothing but the textbook to fall back upon.

Here there is difficulty to be faced. If documents are to be provided in the necessary abundance, a series of volumes is required, and many schoolmasters would shrink from asking their pupils to buy a fresh book, at the cost of a few shillings, for each short period of English history. The science laboratory indicates the solution of the problem. Boys are not expected to buy their own water taps, Bunsen burners, and other apparatus; the school provides them and sometimes makes a small . . . charge for their use. In the same way the source books here referred to must be supplied as school property, and the sum of some twenty-five pounds will supply a complete laboratory for school use. (5: 92–93)

Library reading an uneconomical primary source of subject matter. Sometimes teachers advocate having no required textbooks and depending entirely upon reference reading as the source of subject matter. If nearly all studying is done during the regular school day, and thoroughly adequate equipment is provided, and definite page references given in the assignments, this method may work satisfactorily. Sometimes teachers try to use this method, especially in college, without providing for these essential points. The result is that students waste a large amount of time trying to get an opportunity to read the assignments. This point has already been covered in the chapter on economy in classroom management (p. 38). Often the very instructors who object most strenuously to the use of textbook methods are the ones that are most careless and neglectful in attending to the routine of organizing the arrangements for reference and reserve books. On the other hand, the teachers who provide for the most economical, effective, and educative use of required

textbooks by their students sometimes provide most thoroughly for supplementary reading also.

Use mimeographed study questions for directing reading. - In order to make such supplementary reading economical and effective, the teacher should provide not only mimeographed page references, but also copies of questions or problems to be used as the basis for examining each reference. An example of such a practice is the following from the work in history conducted by Mr. A. F. Barnard in the University of Chicago High School.

THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS

Assignment: Plutarch

Life of Pyrrhus

1. From what heroes was Pyrrhus descended, according to legend? (Sec. 1.)

2. What was Hannibal's opinion of Pyrrhus as a general? (Sec. 8.)

3. What were the difficulties of the Tarentines? (Sec. 13.) 4. Why did they choose Pyrrhus as ally? (Sec. 13.)

5. What were the motives of Pyrrhus in accepting the invitation of the Tarentines? (Sec. 14.)

6. What were the forces of Pyrrhus, according to Plutarch? (Sec. 15.)

7. How did Pyrrhus prepare the Tarentines for war? (Sec. 16.) 8. What did Pyrrhus commend in the Roman army at Heraclea? (Sec. 16.)

9. Give reasons for the defeat of the Romans. (Sec. 17.) 10. What was the comment of Fabricus on the result of the battle? (Sec. 18.)

Contribution recitation based on varied supplementary assignments. The definite assignments to easily obtained supplementary material may be varied for the different members of the class either by assigning different topics to different students or by assigning different authorities to be consulted upon the same topic. Such assignments give the