4. Abstracting collateral reading and connecting it with the outline of the text.

B. To develop the pupil's ability to act by

1. Arranging logical outlines and abstracts of the subject matter of the text.

2. Arranging tabulations of time sequences of events and persons, grouped according to some convenient unit, as decades or centuries.

3. Drawing maps which shall more or less closely approximate some ideal which the instructor has previously analyzed into its elements.

4. Collecting material on a given topic, organizing it logically, citing references, and preparing bibliographies.

Such a definite tabulation of the specific aims to be achieved in the studying of a subject like history is the first step in the direction of getting some objective basis for determining the progress that the student is making while he is studying. Obviously, many of the aims cited above involve definite objective results in the form of maps or outlines, while others, such as the interpretation of sources, might easily be made to involve the writing of brief answers to definite questions, if the assignments are as definitely and skillfully worked out as those cited above on pages 174-176.

Sometimes, if the teacher cannot determine what progress the student is making by simply looking over the latter's shoulder, he can ask the student questions that will serve the purpose. Moreover, if properly restricted, students may be permitted to ask questions in order to clear up difficulties.

Skilled questioning to avoid assisting too much. — After the teacher has determined what progress the student is making, the next point is to devise questions and suggestions which, without assisting him too much, will keep him thinking and progressing. This requires the finest art on the part of the teacher and is the point at which many fail in conducting supervised study and in other kinds of teaching as well. The teacher should not only endeavor to avoid

too much direct assistance, but must also avoid the opposite practice; namely, long-winded, roundabout, Socratic questioning. At first an inexperienced teacher will have great difficulty in achieving a success in the type of supervision suggested here, but as he becomes well informed concerning the specific difficulties encountered by students in specific types of problems and other assignments, and as he gains some skill in questioning, he will be able to see at a glance what the student's difficulties are and, by one or two wellworded questions, to start him thinking in the right direction.

Sometimes during the period of supervised study a brief period of class discussion of difficulties may be desirable. Hence Breslich says:

This may indi

one that cannot

or that the in

It becomes evident frequently that a great many pupils make the same mistake or encounter the same difficulty. cate either that the mistake is a fundamental one be avoided under the best method of instruction struction was not as efficient as had been supposed by the teacher. Very often the teacher learns that he has not realized how different his method of presentation is from the method of study of the pupils. In such cases the class is asked to stop working. The mistake or difficulty is thoroughly discussed, and work is then resumed where it was left off. (2: 514)

Examples of large improvement from slight assistance.— The favorable results of such suggestions in aiding students who are having difficulties is illustrated by Breslich's account of the work of three students in his supervised-study class. He says:

The section under supervision worked with more confidence and pleasure. This was especially true of the slow pupils. A girl who had failed during the first semester and was in the class on condition made a grade of 78 in the test on this chapter. Her grade in the final examination at the end of the first semester had been only 40. A boy who barely received a passing grade at the end of the first semester, and who at first seemed to be unable to do

anything under supervision, suddenly found that with a little greater effort he could do as well as his classmates. There was an immediate improvement, and one day, when a speed test was given, he surprised everybody, even himself, by leading the class. A girl returning after a week's illness, and still in a weakened condition, said she "could not understand anything that was said,” and felt greatly discouraged. By giving her a little more attention than the other pupils she was enabled to do the work before the end of the recitation, and had no further difficulty. Under the common system of instruction very little attention is paid to such cases. The teacher usually allows a certain amount of time in which the pupil must "catch up." Very often, in addition to the difficulties found in understanding the class work, "back work" is assigned. The injustice of all this at times drives some pupils to use dishonest means of getting possession of this required work. (1: 63, 2: 510)

The suggestions need not be restricted to intellectual difficulties, but may relate to improvement in the form of the work, neatness, more economical methods of procedure, etc. In the case of bright students who readily complete the work required of all, supplementary assignments can be made when needed; that is, if they have not already been made for an extended period or in the general assignment.

Supervised study on new topic should precede home study. -An important rule laid down by Breslich is that assignments of work on a new topic should always be made in such a way as to enable pupils to spend some time studying the topic in school under supervision before having assigned home work. Concerning the relation of this practice to home work he says:

Teachers should take a new attitude toward home work. They should break themselves of the habit of prescribing the regulation amount of home work daily. Pupils cannot be expected to prepare lessons well unless they know definitely what is expected of them. Rather than assign a lesson of doubtful difficulty and receive lessons poorly and dishonestly prepared, they may omit the home assignment altogether. Home work should have the character of completing the class work of the previous day, not of preparing for

the next. This will enable even the slow pupil to apply his time to it with success and profit. Let the pupil struggle with really new work under the supervision of the teacher, but let home work be preceded by enough similar work in the classroom to furnish a pupil a clew to prevent his working in the dark. With this new rôle assigned to home work a change in class methods should follow.

The time ordinarily used for recitation should be shortened or omitted altogether. The time gained can then be used for supervised study and for the development of new work. (1: 70)

General spirit of school improved by supervised study. Finally it may be noted that the system of supervised study introduces a much better general spirit for both pupils and teacher than is secured by the ordinary plan of recitations based on home study. As suggested in the beginning of the chapter, upon the latter plan the teacher is primarily a detective at work to determine how well students have performed, out of school, tasks which have been assigned them. Upon the supervised-study basis the teacher is primarily one who assists students in school to make progress in their studies. Nearly all the articles referred to in the bibliography at the end of the chapter give testimony to large improvement in discipline and decrease in nervous strain and fatigue as results of the introduction of supervised study on a large scale.

Conclusion of discussion of supervised study. This will conclude our chapter upon one of the most important reforms in instruction that is taking place at the present time. We showed that the introduction of supervised study on a large scale is necessary to avoid the large waste of time, energy, and community money that commonly results from the poor or unfortunate students' failing to carry on effective study at home. Experimental investigations were reported which show that poor students learn much more effectively under supervised study. The conditions favorable to study were discussed and shown to consist of certain physical conditions and routine habits which may easily be provided, plus arrangements to

secure spontaneous interest and concentrated attentive thinking. The latter are much more difficult to secure and necessitate special procedure in connection with each type of learning. Finally, the teacher's technique in using suggestive supervision without too much assisting was described and the general point noted that supervised study upon a new topic should always precede home study upon the topic.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

1. BRESLICH, E. R. Supervised Study as a Means of providing Supplementary Individual Instruction. Thirteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. (The University of Chicago Press, 1914.) Pp. 32-72. The most complete survey and summary.

2. BRESLICH, E. R. Teaching High-School Pupils how to Study. School Review, October, 1912, Vol. XX, pp. 505-515. Report of experiments with algebra classes, together with discussion of technique.

3. CALDWELL, O. W. The Laboratory Method and High-School Efficiency. Popular Science Monthly, March, 1913, Vol. LXXII, pp. 243-251.

4. KENNEDY, J. The Batavia Plan after Fourteen Years of Trial. Elementary School Teacher, June, 1912, Vol. XII, pp. 449–459.

5. Ladies' Home Journal, January, 1913. Popular protest against home study.

6. MINNICH, J. H. An Experiment in the Supervised Study of Mathematics. School Review, December, 1913, Vol. XXI, pp. 670–675. Excellent, precise measurements of efficiency of supervision. Good tables and graphs.

7. REAVIS, W. C. Importance of a Study Program for High-School Pupils. School Review, June, 1911, Vol. XIX, pp. 398–405. Sample of program card, with directions for improving studying and measured results of improvement made.

8. REAVIS, W. C. Factors that determine the Habits of Study in Grade Pupils. Elementary School Teacher, October, 1911, Vol. XII, pp. 71–81. Measured results show influence of home environment, etc.

9. WIENER, W. Home-Study Reform. School Review, Vol. XX, pp. 526–531. Enthusiastic account of results of using divided sixtyminute period, one half for supervised study.

Referred to incidentally in the chapter. 10. ADAMS, J. Exposi tion and Illustration in Teaching. (The Macmillan Company, 1910.)