other arrangement for getting the same material before the whole class. The teacher by using a pointer can easily and quickly direct the attention of all students to the same point. Lanterns which project an object eight inches square are now on the market.

Library economy; adequate equipment and management and definite assignments necessary. The equipment and management of school libraries is another routine matter of considerable importance. It is probably better not to attempt to use the library at all for regularly assigned readings, than to have it managed in such a way that students waste hours of time trying to get the material to be read. A working library, equipped with several copies of books definitely usable in connection with class work, and properly catalogued and managed by a trained attendant, should be an essential part of every city high school. Such a provision is impossible in many high schools, but even where it is approximated, there is often enormous waste in using the library, owing to the failure of the teachers to provide for the routine aspects of the work. The principal errors are the following: (1) failure to "reserve" the copies of a book before referring the class to it; (2) referring a large class to a book of which there may be only one or two copies; (3) making the references so vaguely that a student has to spend considerable time in finding what he is to read.

Historical sources used economically in class. - An interesting example of economy in the use of supplementary reading is found in the use of sources in history by Mr. A. F. Barnard of the High School of The University of Chicago. As aids in the study of Greek and Roman history Mr. Barnard has in his classroom copies of each of the following: the Iliad, translated by Lang, Leaf, and Myers; Herodotus, translated by Rawlinson; and Xenophon's Memorabilia. When such a topic as the development of Greek religion is being studied, the copies of the Iliad are distributed on

the desks while the students are assembling. When the earlier phases of Greek religion are to be discussed, the students are asked to open the Iliad to a definite page and line and to read. In the Herodotus and Xenophon the excerpts are read by the teacher at the appropriate places in the discussion. Thus, in a moment, without a second being wasted in getting at the books, the source material is placed before the pupils just when it can be used to best advantage. Pupils are expected to fix the results of the reading and discussion by taking notes, for which purpose a brief outline is generally placed on the blackboard as a guide.

Brevity and conciseness necessary in economical use of notebooks. The economical use of notebooks is another routine factor of considerable importance. Notebooks are used in high schools as records of library reading, of laboratory work, and occasionally of lectures. There is little doubt that the keeping of voluminous, carefully written notes is a waste of the student's time. On the other hand, it is evident that a brief, concise record of the student's thought or reactions is desirable. The problem is to avoid the former and secure the latter, for even when the brief, concise, original statement by the student is asked for, he is likely to submit a voluminous copied statement instead. The desired end may be attained by some device which necessitates subdivisions or paragraphs that make the items in the report stand out clearly, and requires the use of concise forms of expression by the student.

Class outlines and syllabi to be mimeographed by skilled operator, not dictated. As a final topic under the discussion of economy in using materials we shall consider the value of using machines for manifolding copies of lists of assigned readings, of laboratory directions, of class outlines and syllabi, etc. It is not uncommon for teachers to consume the time of pupils by dictating such material instead of having it printed in some way. Every large high school

should have such mechanical devices and employ such clerical help as is necessary to manifold copies of all material that can be manifolded to advantage. The principal of the high school should see that this is done, and should stimulate the teachers to take advantage of the opportunity instead of waiting for the teachers to become so much interested in the matter that they request such assistance. The ordinary Edison rotary mimeograph is excellent for this purpose. From one well-cut stencil hundreds of clear copies may be run off in a few minutes. The work should be done by a person who has developed skill in the operations.

In case

Teacher may use simple, inexpensive duplicator. there is no central office in which a skilled operator does the manifolding for the whole school, it is possible for a relatively unskilled teacher to manifold his own material by using a duplicator or hektograph. Such an arrangement simply involves making one handwritten or typewritten copy, laying this on a specially prepared surface so that an ink impression is left, then removing the copy and pressing sheets of paper upon the impression. Fifty or more copies may thus be transferred without any special skill being required. An inexpensive duplicator could probably be easily secured through a local stationer, or even a homemade hektograph constructed by following one of the current recipes.

The manifolding of directions, syllabi, etc. not only saves much time but also stimulates more definite and careful organization of the courses of instruction. Furthermore, it removes many elements of uncertainty in assignments. If the assignments for a term's work are definitely made out in this way, the students have no occasion for misunderstanding what is expected of them.

This completes our discussion of economizing time and energy in the handling of materials. We have taken up only a few examples from laboratory and shop work, composition courses, the use of libraries and notebooks, and the

manifolding of outlines. Many other examples could be considered to advantage, but enough has been said to demonstrate the importance of the topic and to suggest some of its practical possibilities.

Proper ventilation and lighting conserve energy. - The fifth routine factor to be considered in economizing time and energy is attention to the physical conditions of the classroom. This is important not only from the standpoint of the temporary and permanent effect upon health, but also from the standpoint of waste of energy. If a room is poorly ventilated or lighted, the energy of the students which is available for concentrated study is diminished.

Teacher may supplement ventilating system; use of monitor. The teacher should acquaint himself with the ventilating system and try to coöperate effectively in its management. If it does not work, he may be able to take steps to supplement it. For example, in two recitation rooms which I have used there was an ample supply of fresh air from the inlet in the wall near the ceiling in one end of each room. But in each case the outlet was placed in the wall near the floor directly under the inlet. As a consequence the air circulated very well in one end of the room, but three fourths of the room received practically no benefit from the system. Upon the suggestion of the teacher a metal deflector was made by the engineer and fastened on the inlet in such a way as to send the air diagonally across the room, thus providing a supply of fresh air for nearly all parts. In case there is no ventilating system, the teacher can at least provide for boards on the window sills. These will make it possible to keep the windows partly open during recitations in cold weather. It would also be well to have a monitor in each class, who should open the windows wide when the class arises to leave for the next recitation, thus providing for three or four minutes of thorough ventilation. The teacher should not rely upon his own impressions concerning the

condition of the air in the room, for his sense of smell soon becomes fatigued in such a way that it does not inform him of the conditions.

Arrange so that students do not face the light.— In regard to lighting, the teacher's first duty is to arrange so that pupils do not sit facing the light. The frequent neglect of this simple precaution is very striking. In constructing library reading rooms it is not uncommon to find many readers placed so that they face low windows. Students often sit voluntarily in such positions that they receive the full glare of the light directly in their eyes but have their books so placed that these receive little illumination. In assuming such positions it would seem that they were handicapping themselves purposely in order to waste as much energy as possible.

Avoid shadows on the page. — The second precaution is to arrange so that there are no shadows on the page at which the pupil is looking. In other words, there should be the same degree of illumination all over the page. If this is not the case, the pupil of the eye is constantly readjusting itself to the different degrees of illumination. This is not only a waste of energy, but it is often quite distracting and annoying, although the reader may not be clearly conscious of the cause of the annoyance. We have extreme examples of this variation in illumination on a day when shifting clouds cause a rapid alternation of sunshine and shadow. The eyestrain under these extreme conditions is quite noticeable. When part of the page is well illuminated and the other part in deep shadow, the eyes may experience the same phenomenon on a smaller scale some fifty to a hundred times in reading a single page.

Single source of illumination best. The first step usually taken to avoid such a situation is to provide that the light shall come from a single source. The student can then easily sit in such a position that there are no shadows on his page. If there are two sources of light, the possibilities of sitting so