by a mere "heave of the will" is relatively ineffective, since, at the outset, it usually establishes merely a condition of divided attention that is relatively unfavorable to studying. What is needed is a clear understanding of the conditions upon which favorable attitudes of concentration of attention depend, and intelligent endeavor by teachers to establish these conditions. Hence, in taking up the discussion of the

technique of supervised study we shall relate it to the conditions determining the concentration of attention.

Physical conditions should suggest study. A study-program card improves studying. The influence of physical conditions in determining concentration of attention is the first point that we shall consider. By physical conditions we mean all kinds of routine mechanical arrangements that can be made in order to put students in a situation in which all of the suggestions are in the direction of concentration of attention along the desired lines. The grade teacher's orders to "put

everything away" is the most obvious endeavor to eliminate conditions which suggest attention in undesirable directions. In general, the suggestions of the physical situation in school ought to be much more favorable to study than those of the home situation. The suggestions of the school situation can be greatly strengthened, however, if the teacher makes it a point to do so. This is illustrated by Reavis's experiment with cards upon which each student made out a definite program of study for the term. The form of one side of the card is shown on page 403. (7: 400.) The student indicated the subject that he was to study at each period that he was in the study room. "Duplicate copies were placed on file in the assembly-room desk, so that the teacher in charge could closely supervise the work." Reavis records the influence of the study-program card in the following statement:

During the two and a half years that study has been closely supervised and regular programs for each pupil strictly followed, three things have been accomplished with more or less success: (1) the problem of discipline has been practically solved; (2) considerable improvement has been made in scholarship; (3) regular hours of home study have been provided for by the large majority of the students. (7: 399)

Reavis gives measured evidence for these statements. To be sure, these results are only partially due to the influence of the card as an improvement in the physical situation, but its influence in this way is very important. That is, once the program card is made out, it becomes just as much a part of the physical situation as the clock or the bell or the teacher, and it operates more or less mechanically as a source of suggestions for concentrating attention.

Students testify to influence of card in improving study. — As evidence of the value of the study cards Reavis gives the following testimony from students who used them for two and a half years.

1. By following a definite program of study I have formed the habit of studying a certain lesson at a certain time, and because I know that I must study at that time I am always ready.

2. If a definite program is followed, I can do more and better work than if I study in a haphazard fashion.

3. When following a study program one is never in doubt about what to do next.

4. A study program keeps me from spending too much time on favorite subjects.

5. By following a regular program I waste no time in thinking about what I shall do next. Then, too, it keeps me from changing tasks when I begin to tire of what I am doing.

6. By preparing my work regularly I find that I not only have better lessons but also have more time for leisure.

7. The study program has proved so beneficial to me in the preparation of my lessons that I now follow a regular program for all of my work.

8. I find that by following a regular program of study I always study each lesson, whether I accomplish anything or not. At least I always know something about each lesson.

9. I had the habit of always putting off my work until I felt just right for study, and as a result made very poor grades, but since I have adopted a regular study program my interest in my work has greatly increased and I am no longer ashamed of my grades. (7: 404-405)

Thus we see that a study program may be one of the most important aspects of the physical situation, serving as a source of suggestions for the concentration of attention in the right direction at stated periods.

Form habits of going through the motions of studying. A second general class of conditions determining concentration of attention includes certain more or less mechanical habitual processes which the student may develop. They involve "going through the motions" of giving attention or getting ready to give attention. An example has already been given (on page 358) of the way students settle down to work

under different teachers. Improvements in habits of study may be made along this line. The need of them is shown by Breslich's statement of the conditions observed at one stage of his investigation after the experience with the girl who did n't understand suggestions, as described on page 394. Breslich says:

To ascertain to what extent the other members of the class might have this difficulty, the following experiment was tried: In assigning the next lesson, suggestions were given with unusual care. The pupils were then told that the next fifteen minutes would be given to studying the lesson, and that they should begin the assigned home work immediately. The experiment showed at once that the pupils did not appreciate the value of limited time, for all were slow in beginning work. It took some of them the whole fifteen minutes to go through the technique of getting started. Several evidently were not in the habit of working alone, for they looked about helplessly and simply imitated the others. However, these same pupils had come to the classroom daily with the lessons well prepared. Very little was accomplished in the fifteen minutes, indicating that the pupils very probably wasted much time in studying their assignments of home work. Although the class had been in the high school only a short time, the teacher had been presupposing a habit of study which did not exist. Much of the difficulty is due to lack of knowledge as to how to study and how to use time to advantage. The remedy in this case is, of course, definite instruction as to methods of study. (1: 45, 2: 506)

Example of an individual making his own surroundings favorable. Students can easily be trained to go through the motions of getting ready to study. Either in school or at home they can be taught to apply the idea of putting distracting objects out of sight and arranging materials for the present task. This habit in the student corresponds to the teacher's activity in arranging the physical situation. Many adults apply this principle of "going through the motions by arranging favorable physical situations in their own work.

Thus, in my office much of my work is carried on under conditions that involve rapid shifting of attention; for example, during a conference with a student I may have to answer the telephone two or three times, give directions to clerks who come in with questions, and perhaps make memoranda on another case which flits through my mind while the student is slowly presenting his or is trying to choose between certain alternatives which we have been discussing. Obviously, such a situation is not favorable to prolonged economical attention to one matter; hence, if I have some long statistical calculations to make, or am puzzling out the organization of the work in a department, or working out the program for a faculty meeting, I always go to another room and use a desk on which there is no other work of my own and where I shall probably not be approached about other matters. Similarly, at home my regular desk is piled with distracting material related to the teaching of my classes. Consequently, when I want to write on a chapter or article with greatest economy of attention, I commonly use the dining-room table or any other table that I can get. Upon it are piled only materials that are conducive to attention to the work in hand. Moreover, it is possible to acquire ideas or habits of arranging these in detail so as to make for economy in attention. For example, sources that are to be consulted may be piled in the order in which they are to be used; a used page of the outline which is being followed may be put at the bottom of the pile of outline pages; finished pages of the manuscript may be piled so that they will be in order (this usually involves putting them face downward but placing the last finished sheet so that it can be referred back to at a glance).

Outlining is a useful form of going through the motions. - The practice of making an outline on paper is another habit of going through the motions that helps in securing attention in studying. For example, in beginning this chapter about half past seven one evening I was possessed with the