Fortunately the studies and methods in high-school instruction are being so humanized and related to the everyday out-of-school interests of normal human beings that the possibility of determining and fixing abiding interests for pupils is greatly increased. Hence we may look forward to the day when most instruction will result in the pupils' "laying hold of and reaching out after more" of the types. of experiences to which the school has introduced or habituated them.

Relation of proximate aims to methods to be determined later. This will conclude our discussion of Thorndike's theoretical formulation of the purposes of education. While the ultimate purposes—namely, efficiency, good will, and harmless enjoyment may seem to be somewhat abstract and to have little direct relation to methods of instruction, it should be evident by this time that the proximate aims namely, health, information, habits, ideals, and interestsare vital factors in determining what methods of instruction shall be used in the various subjects. This will be increasingly evident in some of the detailed discussions which follow. In the next chapter we shall take up a consideration of certain general aspects of the school as a specialized institution set apart to achieve as economically as possible the purposes discussed in this chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

General statement.

The bibliographical notes at the ends of the chapters are not intended to be at all exhaustive or complete. They are intended to provide a few references to discussions that are related directly to the topics treated in the chapters.

General discussions of aims and purposes. 1. BAGLEY, W. C., The Educative Process. (The Macmillan Company, 1905.) Pp. 40-65. One of the best brief critical discussions of various aims.

2. SPENCER, HERBERT. Education, chap. i, entitled What Knowledge is most Worth. (1859.) The most classic discussion of educational aims written in English during the nineteenth century.

3. THORNDIKE, E. L. Principles of Teaching. (A. G. Seiler, 1906.) Pp. 1-7.

4. THORNDIKE, E. L. Education. (The Macmillan Company, 1912.) Pp. 9-52. A very original discussion of many aims.

Historical discussions. 5. BROWN, E. E. The Making of our Middle Schools. (Longmans, Green & Co., 1902.) The standard history of grammar schools, academies, and high schools.

6. MONROE, P. Cyclopædia of Education. (The Macmillan Company, 1911.) Articles entitled "Grammar Schools," "Academies," High Schools.”

7. PARKER, S. C. History of Modern Elementary Education. (Ginn and Company, 1912.) Pp. 18–23 on decline of Latin. Pp. 49–52 on grammar schools as selective.

Recent discussions of high-school tendencies. 8. CUBBERLY, E. P. Does the Present Trend of Vocational Education threaten Liberal Culture? School Review, September, 1911, Vol. XIX, pp. 454–465. 9. DEWEY, J. The Educational Situation. (The University of Chicago Press, 1902.) Pp. 50-79.

10. MCANDREW, W., and others. Success in School. School Review, November, 1911, Vol. XIX, pp. 585-595. Extreme statement of the idea that the high school exists for the benefit of its students. Answered in School Review, October, 1912, Vol. XX, pp. 559–563.

II. SISSON, E. O. College Students' Comments on their Own High-School Training. School Review, December, 1912, Vol. XX, pp. 649–664.

12. SNEDDEN, D. The Opportunity of the Small High School. School Review, February, 1912, Vol. XX, pp. 98-110. Endeavors to define in a practical way the aims appropriate to small high schools as distinguished from those of large schools.

Also referred to in the chapter. 13. HERBART, F. Outlines of Educational Doctrine. (The Macmillan Company. Originally published in 1841.)

CHAPTER III

ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Main points of the chapter. 1. The school is a complicated institution with large opportunities for waste and for economy. 2. To avoid waste, principles of business management should be applied in the classroom.

3. Routine is necessary for efficiency and economizes time and

energy.

4. Individuality, spontaneity, initiative, and reasoning may have the same place in a well-routinized school as they have in democratic social life.

5. The principal routine factors are (1) beginning right, (2) seating of students, (3) passing to and from recitations, (4) handling materials, (5) attention to physical conditions, (6) preserving order.

Need to correlate progressive theory and efficient practice. In the preceding chapter we established a general point of view concerning the purposes of high-school instruction which will assist us in judging the value of processes of instruction to be discussed in later portions of the book. There is danger, however, that educational leaders and students will overemphasize the somewhat idealistic conceptions presented in the preceding chapter, and will neglect to keep in mind the practical school situation in which such theories have to be carried out. This statement does not imply that the more progressive policies cannot be carried out in actual practice, but it does imply that the success of progressive reforms will depend upon the efficiency with which reformers apply principles of business management in organizing their instruction. Consequently, in order to secure a proper balance in the mind of the reader between an enthusiasm for broader

modern ideals in education, on the one hand, and principles of practical management, on the other, this chapter dealing with economy in classroom management is introduced at this point.

Teacher should avoid misdirected time and energy. The school is a complicated, specialized institution, maintained by society to achieve certain specific results. The classroom activities should be planned carefully to make sure that they are directed toward securing these results most economically and effectively, and the possibilities of misdirected time, effort, and energy should be reduced to a minimum.

Principles of business management should be applied. In any other institution or organization or plant which is as complicated as the school, efficiency depends to a large extent upon careful attention to the details of management. In a manufacturing plant, for example, great care is taken to provide for the most economic placing and handling of material, so as to eliminate waste motion. A manufacturer may enormously increase the efficiency of his plant by inventing a device that will require fewer operations to produce an article, or will produce several articles by the same number of operations as formerly produced but one. If such principles of economy are important in factories, where the product that is wasted or economized is material, they are much more important in the school, where the product to be wasted or economized consists of human lives. No factory deals with such precious raw material as does the school; hence in no other process is it so important to give careful attention to the problems of waste and economy as in education.

Routinize mechanical aspects; use judgment in variable aspects. The sources of waste in classroom work have been divided by Professor Bagley into two principal types: The first type includes those where the waste is due to failure to organize properly certain mechanical aspects of the

classroom activity. To this type he applies the term routine factors. The second type includes those sources of waste which are due to failure to adjust the classroom activities to the constantly varying capacities, interests, and responses of the students. To these aspects of school work Bagley applies the term judgment factors. The routine factors include those matters that recur in approximately the same form from day to day and which can be advantageously systematized, organized, and reduced to mechanical habits. The judgment factors, on the other hand, are constantly varying, and require of the teacher constant alert exercise of judgment in order to avoid misdirected time and energy.

List of principal routine and judgment factors. - The principal matters to which attention should be given from the standpoint of routine are the following:

I. Getting started right the first day.

2. Seating of students.

3. Passing to and from recitations.

4. Handling materials.

5. Attention to physical conditions. 6. Maintenance of order.

The principal judgment factors are related to making provisions for individual differences in capacities and securing concentrated attention in the right direction. This chapter will discuss the elimination of waste through proper organization of the routine factors. The judgment factors will be considered in several later chapters.

Reasoning and individuality may have the same place in a well-routinized school as in social life. Before taking up a detailed discussion of the routine factors, we shall endeavor to justify the "business conception" of school-keeping which has been outlined above, since, according to many idealistic educators, "factory standards" and "machine processes" have no place in the school. They use these words as terms of reproach, and always speak of the "ideal school" in terms of