the movements made by the subject. Those which are effective and valuable can be distinguished from those that are ineffective and useless by an examination of the moving picture when thrown on a screen. The large clock shown on the films in the picture has a single hand which revolves once in six seconds. By this means it is possible to calculate just how much time is wasted in useless movements. The results of a careful analysis of even so skillful and delicate an art as surgery show that a great improvement could be effected in the operations by eliminating waste motion. (7: 48-50)

Empirical discussions in gymnastics, music, and pronunciations. Leaving these experimental studies of the acquisition of motor skill, let us consider the methods and practices which are found in the various school subjects in which motor skill plays a part. Here we shall find much empirical discussion but few scientific data.

Gymnastics. Taking up gymnastics, athletics, sports, and games first, we find the following points, in terms of our discussion on page 99.

1. Good form is emphasized.- Great stress is placed upon using what are considered to be the best methods of performing the acts in question. This is known as emphasizing good form. In football, for example, there are considered to be certain better or best ways of falling upon the ball, of carrying it, of tackling a runner, etc. Similarly, in golf, in tennis, and on the track, while certain mediocre or fairly good results may be achieved by various methods, in order to compete with the most expert it is necessary to use the methods that will direct and conserve energy in the most effective and economical ways.

2. Verbal directions by coach supplement imitation. — While the skilled coach or instructor may often depend upon imitation, he also makes extensive use of verbal instructions and directions which help the learner to analyze the movement or play and to "get the idea." This is brought out very strikingly in the occasional failure of the brilliant,

skilled, conscientious player when he tries to be a coach, and the occasional brilliant success of a coach who is not himself a skilled player.

3. Explicit analysis of movements sometimes helpful. Such an analysis as is referred to in the preceding paragraph often involves explicit attention to the character of the

JERRY TRAVERS'S HOLD FOR PUTTING IN PLAYING GOLF

Note the peculiar interlocking of the little finger of one hand with the index finger of the other

movement to be made. An example of this fact is furnished by my own experience in learning to do the kip, or "snap-up,' on the horizontal bar. This trick consists in hanging by the hands from the bar, swinging back and forth, and then, when the body has reached the end of the forward swing, kicking up at an angle of about 90 degrees to the direction of the trunk of the body. The performer's body then "snaps up" under and behind the bar so that he rests in a vertical

position with the bar across the front of his body near the hips. The diagram below represents the stages in the trick.

It commonly takes students from a month to six months to learn this trick. Some never succeed in learning it. My first instructor depended entirely on imitation and signals. He would perform the trick, then ask the students to try, and we would proceed to jerk our arms, kick, and thrash around in a more or less aimless way. Sometimes he would say, "Kick when I slap you." This signal helped a few of the students, but most of us continued to flounder. After a time another instructor took us in hand. He showed us the trick and explained it. He

Bar

Bar

Bar

Bar

2

First

position

Second position

Third position

Fourth

said, "You do

position

not need to jerk

STAGES IN PERFORMING THE KIP ON A HORI

ZONTAL BAR

In the third position I indicates the direction of the kick, and 2 the direction in which the body moves after the kick

your arms out of their sockets. No great strength is re

quired. The whole trick is to kick at the right time and in the right direction. Watch the kick." These general remarks were supplemented by specific suggestions such as "Wait longer before you kick. Kick more toward the ceiling." Having grasped the idea, many of the students proceeded to learn the trick after a relatively brief period of trial and accidental success. It is important to notice that in a case like this it is very difficult to get the idea merely through observation or imitation. For example, the ordinary beginner commonly overemphasizes the arm jerk and fails to observe the importance of the kick.

4. Trial and error.— - Further comment on the part played by trial and accidental success in gymnastic instruction is not

necessary, since the points made would be the same as in the case of tossing balls described above on page 101.

5. Training in elementary movements sometimes helpful. Separate drill on the most elementary movements is sometimes emphasized in gymnastic systems which are constructed on the principle of proceeding from the simple to the complex. This separate exercise of elementary movements may be desirable from the standpoint of systematic training of all sets of muscles, and in acquiring various elementary coördinations which may then play a part in more complex coördinations. Swinging Indian clubs furnishes good examples. On the other hand, in many cases, such as the juggling of balls described above, separate practice on the elements is probably a waste of time. In some cases it is almost impossible, as in turning a back somersault in the air. In this trick the following movements are involved: (a) jumping vertically, (b) jerking the knees up so that they strike the chest, (c) swinging the arms back over the head, and (d) jerking the head back. The turn in the air is caused by (b), (c), and (d). While there may be some advantage in separate practice of each of these to develop strength, there is little advantage from the standpoint of developing control or coördination.

Musical technique. In the acquisition of motor control in musical technique, as in playing the violin or piano or in singing, we find the following points:

Disagreements concerning good form. There is strong emphasis upon correct method, or good form, although considerable disagreement may exist as to what is correct. Thus, one teacher may insist that his positions are the only correct ones to assume, while another teacher may claim that the first one ruins his pupils' chances by requiring such positions. Among the more moderate discussions we find such recommendations as the following, which occurs in Josef Hofmann's book entitled "Piano Playing."

Play always with the fingers, that is, move your arms as little as possible and hold them and the shoulder muscles quite loosely. The hands should be nearly horizontal, with a slight inclination from the elbows toward the keys. Bend the fingers gently and endeavor to touch the keys in their centers and with the tips of the fingers. (11 27)

In the chapter on Correct Touch and Technique he says:

A correct fingering is one which permits the longest natural sequel of fingers to be used without a break. By earnest thinking every player can contrive the fingering that will prove most convenient to him. But, admitting that the great diversity of hands prohibits a universal fingering, all the varieties of fingering ought to be based upon the principle of a natural sequel.

(11: 35)

Attention to tones versus attention to movements illustrated in vocal technique. In acquiring musical technique the learner's attention is very often directed by his instructor upon the movement itself, although the objective results (the tone or tones) are also emphasized in some systems. One of the best summaries of the historical and scientific aspects of the problem here presented, as far as voice training is concerned, is D. C. Taylor's "Psychology of Singing." The author contrasts (a) what he calls the mechanical methods (which focus the attention of the learner on his vocal apparatus) with (b) those which place the emphasis on the quality of the tone produced and the use of imitation and trial and accidental success. In this connection he quotes the following contrast between the two systems, written by an author who favors the mechanical method.

If a teacher says, That tone is harsh; sing more sweetly," he

has given no method to his pupil. He has asked the scholar to change his tone, but has not shown him how to do it. If, on the other hand, he directs the pupil to keep back the pressure of the breath or to change the location of the tone, - if he instructs him in the correct use of the vocal chords or speaks of the position of his tongue, of his diaphragm, of his mouth, etc., he gives him