at Whitsuntide in Germany and Austria, pp. 60-65; tree-spirit killed
annually lest he should grow old and feeble, p. 65 sq.; resemblance of
these modern mummers to the King of the Wood, p. 66 sq.; a mock
human sacrifice often substituted for a real one, pp. 67-70.

§ 3. Carrying out Death, pp. 70-115.-Death and burial of the Carnival repre-

sented in effigy or by living person in Italy, Spain, France, Austria, and

Germany, pp. 71-81; ceremonies of the same sort in Greece and Esthonia,

p. 81 sq.; pretence of resurrection, p. 82; effigy of Death carried out

and thrown away or destroyed in Lent, pp. 82-86; "Sawing the

Old Woman" at Mid-Lent, pp. 86-89, practised by gypsies on Palm

Sunday, p. 89 sq.; effigies of Lent with seven legs rent in pieces, p. 90 sq.;

carrying out of Death followed by a pretence of bringing in Summer, which

is represented by a tree, branches, a puppet, or a living person, pp. 91-94;

in these customs the effigies of Death and the Carnival probably repre-

sented originally the dying or dead tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation,

pp. 94-99; contrast between vegetation in winter and spring represented

by dramatic contest between actors who play the parts of Winter and

Summer, pp. 99-103; struggle between representatives of summer and

winter among the Esquimaux, p. 103 sq.; funeral of Kostrubonko, Kupalo,

Kostroma, Yarilo, and other vegetation-spirits in Russia, pp. 105-107;

in these ceremonies sorrow mixed with joy, affection with fear, p. 107;

Albanian ceremony of throwing Kore into a river, p. 108; the fair of

Ralî in India, p. 108 sq.; the foregoing ceremonies magic rites intended

by means of sympathetic magic to secure the revival of vegetation in

spring, pp. 110-113; analogous ceremonies performed by the Central

Australian savages at the approach of the rainy season, pp. 113-115.

$ 4. Adonis, pp. 115-130.-Rites representing the death and resurrection of

vegetation prevalent in ancient Egypt and Western Asia under the names

of Osiris, Adonis, Tammuz, Attis, and Dionysus, p. 115; worship of

Adonis borrowed by Greeks from Syria, p. 115 sq.; his marriage, death,

and resurrection annually acted, p. 116; the red anemone his blood,

p. 116 sq.; his rites a dramatic representation of the yearly decay and

revival of plant life, pp. 117-119; legend that the bones of the slain

Tammuz were ground in a mill, p. 119; the Gardens of Adonis charms to

promote the growth of the crops, pp. 119-121; the throwing of them into

water a rain-charm like the custom of throwing water on persons at harvest

and sowing, pp. 121-123; Babylonian festival at which water was thrown

on effigy of dead Tammuz, p. 123 sq.; analogies to the Gardens of Adonis

in India and Sardinia, pp. 124-127; the Sardinian custom observed at

midsummer and associated with bonfires, p. 127 sq.; modes of divination

at midsummer resembling the Gardens of Adonis, p. 129 sq.; gardens of

Adonis still planted by Sicilian women, p. 130.

§ 5. Attis, pp. 130-137.-Attis a Phrygian deity of vegetation, his death and
resurrection annually celebrated, pp. 130-132; originally a tree-spirit, but
also identified with the corn, pp. 132-134; his priests probably slain in

the character of the god, pp. 134-136; Hyacinth perhaps another
embodiment of the flowery spring, his death annually mourned at
Amyclae, p. 136 sq.

§ 6. Osiris, pp. 137-160.-Myth of Osiris, pp. 137-139; his death and burial

celebrated with annual rites, p. 140 sq.; Osiris as a corn-spirit, pp. 141-143,

as a tree-spirit, pp. 143-145; Isis as a corn-goddess, p. 145 sq.; Osiris

sometimes interpreted as the sun, p. 146 sq.; position of the sun-god Ra

in Egyptian religion, pp. 147-150; Osiris represents not the sun but the

annual growth and decay of vegetation, pp. 150-152; Osiris identified by

some ancient authorities with the moon, pp. 152-154; moon popularly

regarded as the cause of growth and the source of moisture, pp. 154-159;

hence moon especially worshipped by agricultural peoples, p. 159 sq.; this

explains association of corn-god Osiris with the moon, p. 160.

$ 7. Dionysus, pp. 160-168.—Dionysus a tree-god, p. 160 sq.; legend of his
violent death and resurrection, pp. 161-163; his sufferings, death, and
resurrection enacted in his rites, p. 163 sq.; Dionysus as a bull, p. 164 sq.;
a live bull torn to pieces at his rites, p. 165; Dionysus as a goat, p. 165 sq.;
a live goat torn and devoured raw by his worshippers, p. 166; gods
killed in the form of their sacred animals, p. 166 sq.; at rites of Dionysus
a man sometimes torn in pieces instead of an animal, p. 168.

§ 8. Demeter and Proserpine, pp. 168-222.-Myth of Demeter and Proserpine,

p. 168 sq.; annual death and resurrection of Proserpine represented in her

rites, p. 169; Demeter interpreted by Mannhardt as the Barley-mother or

Corn-mother, p. 169 sq.; the Corn-mother in modern superstition,

p. 170 sq.; the Corn-mother present in the last corn cut at harvest,

pp. 171-173; the last sheaf also called the Harvest-mother, the Great

Mother, the Grandmother, the Old Man, the Old Woman, pp. 173-176;

in Scotland the last sheaf sometimes called the Cailleach or Old Wife,

pp. 176-178, in Wales the Hag (Wrach), p. 178 sq., and among the

Slavs the Baba or Boba (Old Woman), p. 179 sq.; the Harvest Queen in

England, p. 181; the spirit of the corn as Mother-corn or Old Woman

present in last corn threshed, p. 181 sq.; pretence of birth on harvest-

field, p. 182 sq.; Harvest-Child, Kern-Baby, the Mell, p. 183; last sheaf

called the Maiden in some parts of Scotland, pp. 184-186; the Oats-bride,

the Wheat-bride, p. 186 sq.; corn-spirit sometimes represented in Scotland

simultaneously as an old and a young woman (Cailleach and Maiden),

pp. 187-190; analogy of these harvest customs to spring customs previously

described, p. 190 sq.; marks of a primitive ritual, p. 191 sq.; the spring

and harvest customs in question bear these marks, p. 192; this supported

by analogy of harvest customs in other parts of the world, p. 192 sqq.;

Peruvian Mother of the Maize, p. 193 sq.; Mexican harvest customs,

p. 194 sq.; the Mother-cotton in the Punjaub, p. 195; harvest custom

among the Berbers, p. 195 sq.; securing the "soul of the rice" in Borneo

and Burma, pp. 196-198; the Rice-mother and Rice-child among the

Malays, pp. 198-201; marriage of Rice-bride and Rice-bridegroom in

Java, p. 201 sq.; among the Mandan and Minnitaree Indians the goddess

23

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of the corn personated by old women, p. 203 sq.; the spirit of the corn

sometimes represented simultaneously in male and female form by a man

and woman, p. 204; this representation based on idea that plants are

propagated by the intercourse of the sexes, p. 204; intercourse of the

human sexes resorted to or mimicked as a sympathetic charm to promote

the growth of the crops, pp. 204-209; continence sometimes practised for

the same purpose, pp. 209-211; illicit love supposed to blight the crops,

pp. 211-214; suggested origin of Lent, p. 214; why profligacy and con-

tinence should both be supposed to affect the crops, pp. 214-216; Demeter

and Proserpine originally the Corn-mother and the Corn-maiden, pp. 216-

218; why the Greeks represented the corn in duplicate as mother and

daughter, pp. 218-222.

§ 9. Lityerses, pp. 222-261.-Death and resurrection of Adonis, Attis, Osiris,

and Dionysus probably originated in simple rustic rites at harvest and

vintage, p. 222; some of these rites known to us, p. 223; Maneros,

Linus, and Bormus plaintive songs or cries uttered by reapers and

vintagers in Egypt, Phoenicia, and Bithynia, p. 223 sq.; similar song

called Lityerses sung at reaping and threshing in Phrygia, p. 224; story

how Lityerses wrapped strangers in sheaves on the harvest-field and cut off

their heads, p. 224 sq.; parallels to the legend in modern harvest customs,

p. 225 sqq.; reaper, binder, or thresher of last corn, as representing the

corn-spirit, wrapt in corn, beaten, drenched with water, etc., pp. 225-229;

corn-spirit killed at reaping or threshing, p. 230 sq.; corn-spirit repre-

sented by passing stranger who is seized and wrapt in corn, p. 232 sq.;

pretence made of killing a stranger or the master himself on the harvest-

field or at threshing, pp. 233-235; passing stranger treated at the madder-

harvest as the spirit of the madder, pp. 235-237; human beings killed to

promote the fertility of the fields in America, Africa, India, etc., pp. 237-

241; human sacrifices for this purpose among the Khonds, pp. 241-246;

analogy of these savage rites to harvest customs of Europe, p. 247 sq.;

both in Europe and in Phrygia human beings formerly slain at harvest as

representatives of the corn-spirit, pp. 250-252; in Phrygia the victims may

have been priestly kings, p. 250; relation of Lityerses to Attis, p. 250 sq.;

the Bormus song probably a lamentation of reapers over slain corn-spirit,

p. 252; the Linus song probably sung by vintagers and reapers over the

dead spirit of the vines and the corn, p. 252 sq.; Linus perhaps the

rustic prototype of Adonis, p. 253; Adonis or Tammuz perhaps once

represented by a human victim, possibly by the mock king of the Sacaea

at Babylon, p. 253 sq.; Osiris as the slain corn-spirit represented by red-

haired men whose ashes were winnowed, pp. 254-257; ancient harvest

cries (Maneros, Linus, Lityerses, Bormus) announced the death of the

corn-spirit, p. 257 sq.; modern harvest cries (Devonshire "crying the

Neck," etc.), pp. 258-261.

§ 10. The Corn-spirit as an Animal, pp. 261-318.-Corn-spirit conceived as an

animal which is present in the corn and is caught or killed in the last

sheaf, pp. 261-263; corn-spirit as wolf or dog, pp. 263-266, as cock,

pp. 266-269, as hare, p. 269 sq., as cat, p. 270 sq., as goat, pp. 271-277,

as bull or cow, pp. 277-281, as horse, pp. 281-283, as pig, pp. 284-288;
sacramental character of harvest supper, divine animal slain and eaten by
harvesters as embodiment of corn-spirit, p. 288; parallelism between
conceptions of corn-spirit in human and in animal form, p. 288 sq.; why
corn-spirit is conceived as an animal, p. 289 sq.; Dionysus as goat and
bull probably still a deity of vegetation, pp. 291-294; ox as representative
of spirit of vegetation in the Athenian bouphonia, in an African sacrifice,
and a ceremony observed by the Chinese in spring, pp. 294-298; the corn-
goddesses Demeter and Proserpine conceived as pigs, pp. 299-303; the
horse-headed Demeter, p. 303; Attis and Adonis embodied in pigs,
p. 304 sq.; the pig originally a sacred animal of the Jews and Egyptians,
pp. 305-310; the pig perhaps formerly an embodiment of the corn-god
Osiris, p. 310 sq.; red oxen as embodiments of Osiris, p. 311 sq.; the
sacred Egyptian bulls Apis and Mnevis, origin of their worship uncertain,
p. 312 sq.; the horse perhaps an embodiment of Virbius as a deity of
vegetation, pp. 313-315; sacrifice of the October horse, as embodiment of
the corn-spirit, at Rome, pp. 315-318.

§ 11. Eating the God, pp. 318-366.—New corn eaten sacramentally in Europe,

pp. 318-321; new rice eaten sacramentally in East Indies, India, and

Indo-China, pp. 321-325; eating new yams on the Niger, p. 325; Caffre

festival of new fruits, pp. 325-328; festival of new corn among the

Creek, Seminole, and Natchez Indians, pp. 329-335; preparation for

eating sacred food by purgatives, fasting, etc., pp. 335-337; sacrifice of

first-fruits, p. 337; dough images of gods eaten sacramentally by the

Mexicans, pp. 337-342; flesh of a man who represented a god also eaten

sacramentally by the Mexicans, p. 342 sq.; at Aricia loaves perhaps baked

in the image of the slain King of the Wood and eaten by the worshippers,

p. 343 sq.; the Compitalia, p. 343 sq.; effigies offered to ghosts and

demons as substitutes for living people, pp. 344-352; belief of the savage

that he acquires the qualities of animals and men by eating their flesh,

inoculating himself with their ashes, or anointing himself with their fat,

pp. 353-365; hence his reason for eating a god is to imbue himself with

the divine qualities, p. 365 sq.

§ 12. Killing the Divine Animal, pp. 366-448.-Hunters and shepherds as well

as farmers kill their gods, p. 366; Californian sacrifice of the great

buzzard, p. 366 sq.; Egyptian sacrifice of the ram of Ammon, p. 368 sq.;

use of skin of divine animal, p. 369 sq.; annual sacrifice of the cobra-

capella in Fernando Po, p. 370 sq.; Zuni sacrifice of the turtle, pp. 371-

374; worship and slaughter of bears by the Ainos, pp. 374-380, the

Gilyaks, pp. 380-386, the Goldi, p. 386, and the Orotchis, p. 386; the

respect of these peoples for the bear apparently inconsistent with their

custom of killing and eating them, p. 387, but this inconsistency not felt

by the savage, who draws no sharp distinction between himself and the

animals, pp. 387-389; the savage hunter dreads the vengeance of the

animals he has killed or of the other creatures of the species, p. 389;

hence he spares dangerous and useless animals, p. 389, such as crocodiles,

pp. 389-393, tigers, pp. 393-395, snakes, etc., p. 395 sq.; and in killing

animals he tries to appease them and their fellows, p. 396; thus bear-hunters flatter and cajole the slain bears, pp. 396-400; elephanthunters beg pardon of the elephants, p. 400 sq.; marks of respect shown to dead lions and leopards, p. 401; eagle-hunters feed the dead eagles, p. 401 sq.; respect shown for animals varies according to the strength and utility of the beast, p. 402 sq.; propitiation of sables and beavers by the hunters, pp. 403-406; propitiation of deer, elan, and elk by American Indians, pp. 406-408; respect shown by Esquimaux and Greenlanders for the reindeer and seal they have killed, pp. 408-410; propitiation of fish, especially the first fish of the season, by fishing people, pp. 410-415; bones of game respected, sometimes from a belief in the resurrection of animals, pp. 415-417; bones of men sometimes preserved or destroyed to facilitate or prevent their resurrection, p. 417 sq.; resurrection of animals and men in folk-tales, p. 418 sq.; sinew of the thigh of slain animals preserved, perhaps as necessary for the reproduction of the species, pp. 419-421; vermin, such as weevils, leaf-flies, caterpillars, locusts, mice and rats, propitiated by farmers to induce them to spare the crops, pp. 422-426; images of the noxious creatures made as talismans against them, p. 426 sq.; Greek gods worshipped under the title of the pests they exterminated, hence Mouse Apollo, Locust Apollo, Mildew Apollo, Locust Hercules, etc., p. 427; the worship originally paid not to the gods but to the pests themselves (mice, locusts, mildew, etc.), p. 427 sq.; Wolfish Apollo and the wolves, p. 428 sq.; certain animals or species of animals spared because they contain the souls of dead people, pp. 430-435; attitude of Ainos and Gilyaks to the bear explained, p. 435 sq.; two types of animal worship, p. 436 sq., and corresponding to them two types of animal sacrament, the Egyptian and the Aino types, p. 437; sacraments of pastoral tribes, pp. 438-441; procession with image of sacred snake as a form of communion, p. 441 sq.; "hunting the wren" and processions with the dead bird on Christmas Day or St. Stephen's Day, pp. 442-446; procession with man in cowhide on last day of the year, p. 446 sq.; such customs probably were once modes of communion with a divine animal, p. 447 sq.