at Whitsuntide in Germany and Austria, pp. 60-65; tree-spirit killed annually lest he should grow old and feeble, p. 65 sq.; resemblance of these modern mummers to the King of the Wood, p. 66 sq.; a mock human sacrifice often substituted for a real one, pp. 67-70.
§ 3. Carrying out Death, pp. 70-115.-Death and burial of the Carnival repre-
sented in effigy or by living person in Italy, Spain, France, Austria, and
Germany, pp. 71-81; ceremonies of the same sort in Greece and Esthonia,
p. 81 sq.; pretence of resurrection, p. 82; effigy of Death carried out
and thrown away or destroyed in Lent, pp. 82-86; "Sawing the
Old Woman" at Mid-Lent, pp. 86-89, practised by gypsies on Palm
Sunday, p. 89 sq.; effigies of Lent with seven legs rent in pieces, p. 90 sq.;
carrying out of Death followed by a pretence of bringing in Summer, which
is represented by a tree, branches, a puppet, or a living person, pp. 91-94;
in these customs the effigies of Death and the Carnival probably repre-
sented originally the dying or dead tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation,
pp. 94-99; contrast between vegetation in winter and spring represented
by dramatic contest between actors who play the parts of Winter and
Summer, pp. 99-103; struggle between representatives of summer and
winter among the Esquimaux, p. 103 sq.; funeral of Kostrubonko, Kupalo,
Kostroma, Yarilo, and other vegetation-spirits in Russia, pp. 105-107;
in these ceremonies sorrow mixed with joy, affection with fear, p. 107;
Albanian ceremony of throwing Kore into a river, p. 108; the fair of
Ralî in India, p. 108 sq.; the foregoing ceremonies magic rites intended
by means of sympathetic magic to secure the revival of vegetation in
spring, pp. 110-113; analogous ceremonies performed by the Central
Australian savages at the approach of the rainy season, pp. 113-115.
$ 4. Adonis, pp. 115-130.-Rites representing the death and resurrection of
vegetation prevalent in ancient Egypt and Western Asia under the names
of Osiris, Adonis, Tammuz, Attis, and Dionysus, p. 115; worship of
Adonis borrowed by Greeks from Syria, p. 115 sq.; his marriage, death,
and resurrection annually acted, p. 116; the red anemone his blood,
p. 116 sq.; his rites a dramatic representation of the yearly decay and
revival of plant life, pp. 117-119; legend that the bones of the slain
Tammuz were ground in a mill, p. 119; the Gardens of Adonis charms to
promote the growth of the crops, pp. 119-121; the throwing of them into
water a rain-charm like the custom of throwing water on persons at harvest
and sowing, pp. 121-123; Babylonian festival at which water was thrown
on effigy of dead Tammuz, p. 123 sq.; analogies to the Gardens of Adonis
in India and Sardinia, pp. 124-127; the Sardinian custom observed at
midsummer and associated with bonfires, p. 127 sq.; modes of divination
at midsummer resembling the Gardens of Adonis, p. 129 sq.; gardens of
Adonis still planted by Sicilian women, p. 130.
§ 5. Attis, pp. 130-137.-Attis a Phrygian deity of vegetation, his death and resurrection annually celebrated, pp. 130-132; originally a tree-spirit, but also identified with the corn, pp. 132-134; his priests probably slain in
the character of the god, pp. 134-136; Hyacinth perhaps another embodiment of the flowery spring, his death annually mourned at Amyclae, p. 136 sq.
§ 6. Osiris, pp. 137-160.-Myth of Osiris, pp. 137-139; his death and burial
celebrated with annual rites, p. 140 sq.; Osiris as a corn-spirit, pp. 141-143,
as a tree-spirit, pp. 143-145; Isis as a corn-goddess, p. 145 sq.; Osiris
sometimes interpreted as the sun, p. 146 sq.; position of the sun-god Ra
in Egyptian religion, pp. 147-150; Osiris represents not the sun but the
annual growth and decay of vegetation, pp. 150-152; Osiris identified by
some ancient authorities with the moon, pp. 152-154; moon popularly
regarded as the cause of growth and the source of moisture, pp. 154-159;
hence moon especially worshipped by agricultural peoples, p. 159 sq.; this
explains association of corn-god Osiris with the moon, p. 160.
$ 7. Dionysus, pp. 160-168.—Dionysus a tree-god, p. 160 sq.; legend of his violent death and resurrection, pp. 161-163; his sufferings, death, and resurrection enacted in his rites, p. 163 sq.; Dionysus as a bull, p. 164 sq.; a live bull torn to pieces at his rites, p. 165; Dionysus as a goat, p. 165 sq.; a live goat torn and devoured raw by his worshippers, p. 166; gods killed in the form of their sacred animals, p. 166 sq.; at rites of Dionysus a man sometimes torn in pieces instead of an animal, p. 168.
§ 8. Demeter and Proserpine, pp. 168-222.-Myth of Demeter and Proserpine,
p. 168 sq.; annual death and resurrection of Proserpine represented in her
rites, p. 169; Demeter interpreted by Mannhardt as the Barley-mother or
Corn-mother, p. 169 sq.; the Corn-mother in modern superstition,
p. 170 sq.; the Corn-mother present in the last corn cut at harvest,
pp. 171-173; the last sheaf also called the Harvest-mother, the Great
Mother, the Grandmother, the Old Man, the Old Woman, pp. 173-176;
in Scotland the last sheaf sometimes called the Cailleach or Old Wife,
pp. 176-178, in Wales the Hag (Wrach), p. 178 sq., and among the
Slavs the Baba or Boba (Old Woman), p. 179 sq.; the Harvest Queen in
England, p. 181; the spirit of the corn as Mother-corn or Old Woman
present in last corn threshed, p. 181 sq.; pretence of birth on harvest-
field, p. 182 sq.; Harvest-Child, Kern-Baby, the Mell, p. 183; last sheaf
called the Maiden in some parts of Scotland, pp. 184-186; the Oats-bride,
the Wheat-bride, p. 186 sq.; corn-spirit sometimes represented in Scotland
simultaneously as an old and a young woman (Cailleach and Maiden),
pp. 187-190; analogy of these harvest customs to spring customs previously
described, p. 190 sq.; marks of a primitive ritual, p. 191 sq.; the spring
and harvest customs in question bear these marks, p. 192; this supported
by analogy of harvest customs in other parts of the world, p. 192 sqq.;
Peruvian Mother of the Maize, p. 193 sq.; Mexican harvest customs,
p. 194 sq.; the Mother-cotton in the Punjaub, p. 195; harvest custom
among the Berbers, p. 195 sq.; securing the "soul of the rice" in Borneo
and Burma, pp. 196-198; the Rice-mother and Rice-child among the
Malays, pp. 198-201; marriage of Rice-bride and Rice-bridegroom in
Java, p. 201 sq.; among the Mandan and Minnitaree Indians the goddess
of the corn personated by old women, p. 203 sq.; the spirit of the corn
sometimes represented simultaneously in male and female form by a man
and woman, p. 204; this representation based on idea that plants are
propagated by the intercourse of the sexes, p. 204; intercourse of the
human sexes resorted to or mimicked as a sympathetic charm to promote
the growth of the crops, pp. 204-209; continence sometimes practised for
the same purpose, pp. 209-211; illicit love supposed to blight the crops,
pp. 211-214; suggested origin of Lent, p. 214; why profligacy and con-
tinence should both be supposed to affect the crops, pp. 214-216; Demeter
and Proserpine originally the Corn-mother and the Corn-maiden, pp. 216-
218; why the Greeks represented the corn in duplicate as mother and
daughter, pp. 218-222.
§ 9. Lityerses, pp. 222-261.-Death and resurrection of Adonis, Attis, Osiris,
and Dionysus probably originated in simple rustic rites at harvest and
vintage, p. 222; some of these rites known to us, p. 223; Maneros,
Linus, and Bormus plaintive songs or cries uttered by reapers and
vintagers in Egypt, Phoenicia, and Bithynia, p. 223 sq.; similar song
called Lityerses sung at reaping and threshing in Phrygia, p. 224; story
how Lityerses wrapped strangers in sheaves on the harvest-field and cut off
their heads, p. 224 sq.; parallels to the legend in modern harvest customs,
p. 225 sqq.; reaper, binder, or thresher of last corn, as representing the
corn-spirit, wrapt in corn, beaten, drenched with water, etc., pp. 225-229;
corn-spirit killed at reaping or threshing, p. 230 sq.; corn-spirit repre-
sented by passing stranger who is seized and wrapt in corn, p. 232 sq.;
pretence made of killing a stranger or the master himself on the harvest-
field or at threshing, pp. 233-235; passing stranger treated at the madder-
harvest as the spirit of the madder, pp. 235-237; human beings killed to
promote the fertility of the fields in America, Africa, India, etc., pp. 237-
241; human sacrifices for this purpose among the Khonds, pp. 241-246;
analogy of these savage rites to harvest customs of Europe, p. 247 sq.;
both in Europe and in Phrygia human beings formerly slain at harvest as
representatives of the corn-spirit, pp. 250-252; in Phrygia the victims may
have been priestly kings, p. 250; relation of Lityerses to Attis, p. 250 sq.;
the Bormus song probably a lamentation of reapers over slain corn-spirit,
p. 252; the Linus song probably sung by vintagers and reapers over the
dead spirit of the vines and the corn, p. 252 sq.; Linus perhaps the
rustic prototype of Adonis, p. 253; Adonis or Tammuz perhaps once
represented by a human victim, possibly by the mock king of the Sacaea
at Babylon, p. 253 sq.; Osiris as the slain corn-spirit represented by red-
haired men whose ashes were winnowed, pp. 254-257; ancient harvest
cries (Maneros, Linus, Lityerses, Bormus) announced the death of the
corn-spirit, p. 257 sq.; modern harvest cries (Devonshire "crying the
Neck," etc.), pp. 258-261.
§ 10. The Corn-spirit as an Animal, pp. 261-318.-Corn-spirit conceived as an
animal which is present in the corn and is caught or killed in the last
sheaf, pp. 261-263; corn-spirit as wolf or dog, pp. 263-266, as cock,
pp. 266-269, as hare, p. 269 sq., as cat, p. 270 sq., as goat, pp. 271-277,
as bull or cow, pp. 277-281, as horse, pp. 281-283, as pig, pp. 284-288; sacramental character of harvest supper, divine animal slain and eaten by harvesters as embodiment of corn-spirit, p. 288; parallelism between conceptions of corn-spirit in human and in animal form, p. 288 sq.; why corn-spirit is conceived as an animal, p. 289 sq.; Dionysus as goat and bull probably still a deity of vegetation, pp. 291-294; ox as representative of spirit of vegetation in the Athenian bouphonia, in an African sacrifice, and a ceremony observed by the Chinese in spring, pp. 294-298; the corn- goddesses Demeter and Proserpine conceived as pigs, pp. 299-303; the horse-headed Demeter, p. 303; Attis and Adonis embodied in pigs, p. 304 sq.; the pig originally a sacred animal of the Jews and Egyptians, pp. 305-310; the pig perhaps formerly an embodiment of the corn-god Osiris, p. 310 sq.; red oxen as embodiments of Osiris, p. 311 sq.; the sacred Egyptian bulls Apis and Mnevis, origin of their worship uncertain, p. 312 sq.; the horse perhaps an embodiment of Virbius as a deity of vegetation, pp. 313-315; sacrifice of the October horse, as embodiment of the corn-spirit, at Rome, pp. 315-318.
§ 11. Eating the God, pp. 318-366.—New corn eaten sacramentally in Europe,
pp. 318-321; new rice eaten sacramentally in East Indies, India, and
Indo-China, pp. 321-325; eating new yams on the Niger, p. 325; Caffre
festival of new fruits, pp. 325-328; festival of new corn among the
Creek, Seminole, and Natchez Indians, pp. 329-335; preparation for
eating sacred food by purgatives, fasting, etc., pp. 335-337; sacrifice of
first-fruits, p. 337; dough images of gods eaten sacramentally by the
Mexicans, pp. 337-342; flesh of a man who represented a god also eaten
sacramentally by the Mexicans, p. 342 sq.; at Aricia loaves perhaps baked
in the image of the slain King of the Wood and eaten by the worshippers,
p. 343 sq.; the Compitalia, p. 343 sq.; effigies offered to ghosts and
demons as substitutes for living people, pp. 344-352; belief of the savage
that he acquires the qualities of animals and men by eating their flesh,
inoculating himself with their ashes, or anointing himself with their fat,
pp. 353-365; hence his reason for eating a god is to imbue himself with
the divine qualities, p. 365 sq.
§ 12. Killing the Divine Animal, pp. 366-448.-Hunters and shepherds as well
as farmers kill their gods, p. 366; Californian sacrifice of the great
buzzard, p. 366 sq.; Egyptian sacrifice of the ram of Ammon, p. 368 sq.;
use of skin of divine animal, p. 369 sq.; annual sacrifice of the cobra-
capella in Fernando Po, p. 370 sq.; Zuni sacrifice of the turtle, pp. 371-
374; worship and slaughter of bears by the Ainos, pp. 374-380, the
Gilyaks, pp. 380-386, the Goldi, p. 386, and the Orotchis, p. 386; the
respect of these peoples for the bear apparently inconsistent with their
custom of killing and eating them, p. 387, but this inconsistency not felt
by the savage, who draws no sharp distinction between himself and the
animals, pp. 387-389; the savage hunter dreads the vengeance of the
animals he has killed or of the other creatures of the species, p. 389;
hence he spares dangerous and useless animals, p. 389, such as crocodiles,
pp. 389-393, tigers, pp. 393-395, snakes, etc., p. 395 sq.; and in killing
animals he tries to appease them and their fellows, p. 396; thus bear-hunters flatter and cajole the slain bears, pp. 396-400; elephanthunters beg pardon of the elephants, p. 400 sq.; marks of respect shown to dead lions and leopards, p. 401; eagle-hunters feed the dead eagles, p. 401 sq.; respect shown for animals varies according to the strength and utility of the beast, p. 402 sq.; propitiation of sables and beavers by the hunters, pp. 403-406; propitiation of deer, elan, and elk by American Indians, pp. 406-408; respect shown by Esquimaux and Greenlanders for the reindeer and seal they have killed, pp. 408-410; propitiation of fish, especially the first fish of the season, by fishing people, pp. 410-415; bones of game respected, sometimes from a belief in the resurrection of animals, pp. 415-417; bones of men sometimes preserved or destroyed to facilitate or prevent their resurrection, p. 417 sq.; resurrection of animals and men in folk-tales, p. 418 sq.; sinew of the thigh of slain animals preserved, perhaps as necessary for the reproduction of the species, pp. 419-421; vermin, such as weevils, leaf-flies, caterpillars, locusts, mice and rats, propitiated by farmers to induce them to spare the crops, pp. 422-426; images of the noxious creatures made as talismans against them, p. 426 sq.; Greek gods worshipped under the title of the pests they exterminated, hence Mouse Apollo, Locust Apollo, Mildew Apollo, Locust Hercules, etc., p. 427; the worship originally paid not to the gods but to the pests themselves (mice, locusts, mildew, etc.), p. 427 sq.; Wolfish Apollo and the wolves, p. 428 sq.; certain animals or species of animals spared because they contain the souls of dead people, pp. 430-435; attitude of Ainos and Gilyaks to the bear explained, p. 435 sq.; two types of animal worship, p. 436 sq., and corresponding to them two types of animal sacrament, the Egyptian and the Aino types, p. 437; sacraments of pastoral tribes, pp. 438-441; procession with image of sacred snake as a form of communion, p. 441 sq.; "hunting the wren" and processions with the dead bird on Christmas Day or St. Stephen's Day, pp. 442-446; procession with man in cowhide on last day of the year, p. 446 sq.; such customs probably were once modes of communion with a divine animal, p. 447 sq.
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