Doubtless the knowledge of Latin and of classic times formed a most useful bond of union among the Christian clergy, who, taking their orders and spiritual directions from Rome, had no wish or motive to revive heathen legends or superstitions, but, on the contrary, rather desired to discourage curiosity or knowledge about them.2

The subsequent invention of printing, so wonderful in itself, and so full of great results, while it reproduced with impressive splendour the grand literature of Greece and Rome throughout England, did little to restore or elucidate the legendary histories or traditions of Great Britain and Ireland. They have always remained in comparative, almost hopeless, obscurity, save when occasionally referred to by writers of fiction.

The classic writings, like the Jewish Scriptures, were eagerly studied in their printed revivals by statesmen, philosophers, and theologians. Thus Bacon, Raleigh, Shakespeare, &c., often mention classic and Jewish writings, founding thereon most of their religious and political knowledge, while seldom

I "In 596 St. Augustine, sent by Pope Gregory the Great, brought the faith to the Anglo-Saxon tribes, and the moral ferment which the introduction of this new spiritual element occasioned induced also such intellectual exertion as the times permitted, and as the partial communication by the missionaries of the literature of the ancient world tended to enkindle and sustain."-Arnold's "Manual of English Literature."

2

"Every one that has perused the ancient monkish writers knows that they are full of allusions to the Latin poets."-Hume's "History of England," Vol. 3rd.

mentioning the ancient history of their own country, except in fanciful allusion.

The old English ballads mostly celebrating deeds of arms, and which Hallam thinks inferior to the Scottish,I were comparatively neglected till the 18th century when republished by Bishop Percy. Although admired by some literary men, Walter Scott especially, they were seldom referred to by former British writers. The poet Chaucer (1328-1400), who, from social position, was, perhaps, one of the first literary men known at the English Court, lived in the troubled reign of the luckless Richard II. He was probably opposed to that king, being in high favour with John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, whose illustrious son, afterwards Henry IV., supplanted Richard on the throne. Yet Chaucer, though living in such an excited political period, seems not to have written about public affairs.2 The time for literary influence in English politics was yet distant, and the poet's writings during a period of civil war seem to cautiously avoid political allusion.

His religious cotemporary, John Wickliffe (13241384), likewise, whose translation of the Bible was disapproved by the chief politicians, as well as theologians of his time,3 while preparing the English mind for future changes in Christian doctrine, had apparently no political influence.4

I

"History of Literature," Vol. 2nd.

2 T. Arnold's remarks on a list of Chaucer's works.-"Manual

of English Literature."

3 Hallam's "Literary History," Vol. 1st.

4 Hume's "History."

Among the achievements of the first printer, Caxton, in Edward IV.'s reign, few, if any, works on religion were published, though the previous efforts of Wickliffe, like Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales, specially addressed Churchmen, then the chief if not the only patrons of learning in Great Britain and Ireland.

While among the early English kings, literary praises of chivalry evidently inspired Richard I. and others, the first results of Caxton's work were made known to Edward IV. and his murderous brother, Richard III. During the latter's short, terrific reign there was indeed little time or inclination for literary study, though Richard favoured the cause of learning, which his troubled career and odious character prevented his doing much to promote. Shakespeare, no friend to Richard's memory, makes him reveal his knowledge of classic literature in soliloquy, mentioning the oratory of Nestor, the craft of Ulysses, the art of Sinon,3 &c.

It is remarkable that in literary allusions throughout Shakespeare's plays there is scarcely any reference to ancient English history. Nearly all literary allusion mentions Greek or Roman times and men as models and studies of Englishmen to the exclusion of remote English ancestry.

In the reign of Richard III.'s shrewd successor, Henry VII., literary influence made little progress in

I Hallam's "Literary History of Europe."

2 Hume's "History of England."

3 See 3rd part of "Henry VI."

I

England, but in the far more eventful reign of his son, Henry VIII., its influence, power, and progress were greater than ever in English history. The young king himself set an example of literary work, by writing an essay against the new Protestant doctrine, of which he was fated to become the political champion and supporter. The aid of literature was eagerly sought in England during this reign by advocates both of the old and new religious doctrines.

In Scotland, King James III., cotemporary of Henry VII., encouraged literature more than the latter did in England. Classic works were occasionally cultivated in Scotland about this time by some of its nobility whom Scott's novels describe with admiration.3

But in England literary genius, effort, and progress were unprecedented in Henry VIII.'s time. Statesmen, theologians, nobles, poets, and philosophers alike displayed literary activity during his reign. The king,

' Green's "History of the English People," also Hallam's "Literary History."

2 Cassell's "History of England."

3 Bishop Gawain Douglas, son of the Earl of Angus, translated Virgil, perhaps without his martial father's approval. Scott makes the old Earl exclaim, probably representing many of his class at the time

"Thanks to Saint Bothan, son of mine

Save Gawain ne'er could pen a line,
So swore I, and I swear it still,
Let my boy Bishop fret his fill."

"Marmion," Canto VI.

representing, in his unrivalled self, the united Houses of York and Lancaster, was never disturbed by civil war. He surrounded himself, and was previously surrounded by the care of his wise father, with a succession of most able statesmen, ministers, and advisers.

Among these, Cardinal Wolsey was at first preeminent. Although an ambitious Churchman, desiring to obtain the Papacy, he was always a steady, liberal patron of literature. His ambitious energy was, however, constantly involved with the dangerous state intrigues of a troubled reign. While he generously promoted the progress of learning in England, he was always an active politician, as well as a most energetic man of business. Yet his political fall, soon followed by his death, was unaccompanied by popular sympathy. The king's special favourite originally, he therefore had few or no friends according to the proverbial fate of favourites. He was envied by the nobility, and

' Green's "History of the English People," where the historia praises Wolsey's "enormous capacity for toil." Shakespeare's description of him in "Henry VIII." seems also confirmed by different historians. See Lingard's and Hume's Histories; also Froude's "Reign of Henry VIII."

"He was a scholar, and a ripe and good one. . .

Ever witness for him.

Those twins of learning, Ipswich and Oxford !
One of which fell with him,

Unwilling to outlive the good that rear'd it.
The other, though unfinished, yet so famous,
So excellent in art, and still so rising,

That Christendom shall ever speak his virtue.”