CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS.

OBSERVATION A.

On Allusions to Works of Art.

IN the city of Rome were many statues, gems, and other works of art, the subjects of which were the heathen gods and mythological characters. When the poets mention any of these characters, they naturally speak of them as standing in the posture, moving in the attitude, or dressed in the attire in which they were usually represented.

Thus, when Virgil makes Juno (Æn. i.), speak of herself, as, quæ incedo regina, "who move a queen;" that is, whose very gait shows high birth and station, it may not be too fanciful to refer to the majestic figure of Juno, gracefully moving, as represented in the statue of the Vatican Juno, found in the ruins of Lorium, and of which a woodcut is given in Anthon's Virgil.

Another instance of taking descriptions from such sources is found in

taurino cornua vultu Eridanus. G. iv. 31.

And in other passages where rivers are mentioned as tauriformis, we may consider that there is an allusion to the bull's head and horns, a well-known emblem of a river and its branches on gems and works of art.

A third instance is in the description of Venus, Æn. i. 315-320.

In Æn. i. 456-493, if Virgil was not actually copying from some well-known work of art, he at least shows that such delineations and historical pictures or pieces of sculp、 ture were known in his age and country.

It is not certain that the famous statue of Laocoon was in existence when Virgil wrote the fine description in Æn. ii. 200. Still there might have been other representations of the same subject.

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The reader will observe that "Obs. A." usually implies that Virgil is alluding to works of art; but sometimes it is intended to call attention to some description, simile, or other evidence, that works of art were common in Virgil's time.

OBSERVATION B.

On Epithets.

Some epithets are found in Virgil and other poets which convey no direct information, but enrich or enliven the narrative by allusion to the countries or characters famous for things of the same class as those the epithets are designed to illustrate; thus, when Virgil mentions Tyrium ostrum, Tyrian purple; Cecropias apes (G. iv. 177.), Cecropian, or Attic bees; Ariusia vina, Arvisian wine, the sense of the passage does not always require us to consider that the purple came from Tyre, the bees from Attica, or the wine from Arvisus, but mean only such as these several countries were famed for producing. Such epithets are indeed short episodes or little histories of their several objects, and are called ornamental, because they adorn the narrative, diverting the mind of the reader from the littleness of the subject, and causing it to dwell on the city of merchants, the land of Cecrops of old, the remote island of which Arvisus was a promontory, or any thing else the epithet may imply.

OBSERVATION C.

On Poetical Elevation.

In the course of a long poem, and more especially in such poems as the Georgics, many parts, as Dr. Johnson remarked of Milton's Paradise Lost, "must be written for the sake of the rest "a palace must have passages; a poem must have transitions."

In other words, many topics must be introduced, and many matters detailed, to complete and add consistency to a long poem, which would be more properly the subjects of prose than poetry.

So Virgil was conscious of the difficulty of treating agricultural affairs poetically, and says, in the third Georgic (line 288.), that he "is well aware how arduous it is to sur

mount the difficulty of such subjects in description, and to invest with suitable dignity an humble theme." This difficulty is obviated in a variety of ways. Where the poet's way lies through a dull region, he contrives to strew the flowers of poetry about his path by means of similes and metaphors, and by means of choice and elegant words, as well as episodes and illustrations, he entertains the reader as he goes along, as it were, by occasional deviations and excursions into fields of greater beauty.

In this remark it is not meant that a poet thinks much of metaphors, similes, or other figures of speech, still less that he intends mechanically to intersperse one here and another there in exact proportion; we would only state that he writes with as much beauty and ornament as his fancy suggests: and probably Virgil was usually satisfied with the general effect of what he wrote, and rarely stopped to consider how that effect was produced.

Still every effect has a cause; and it is highly improving to endeavour to trace out these causes and principles of poetical beauty, and connect them with their results. This has been the custom of critics, both of ancient and modern times, who have also agreed on certain technical terms to indicate the peculiar figures or forms of writing which are commonly found in poetry. These terms, such as metaphor, prosopopoeia, and others, we here adopt, and, lest we should be said merely to burthen the memory with hard names, we purpose to explain the meaning and force of each, and thus open the mind to familiar principles of poetical criticism.

The following are the chief means of poetical elevation, we might also add of poetical ornament too; though that is more particularly mentioned in Obs. F.

C. 1. A METAPHOR, meaning, literally, "a borrowed expression," is a simile contained in a word; or, a simile with the word of comparison omitted: thus, speaking of a warrior, if we say, " Medios in hostes furens prosiliit leo," it is a metaphor; but " Medios in hostes, veluti leo, furens prosiliit heros," is a simile.

We have marked some instances of metaphor, as well as ornamental epithets in the following lines from "Pope's Rape of the Lock," which we would recommend the student to read with critical attention.

The following lines contain a poetical description of a game of cards: :

Spadillio first, unconquerable (1) lord, (1)

Led off two captive (2) trumps, and swept the board,
As many more Manilio forced to yield, (2)
And march'd a victor from the verdant field. (2)
Him Basto follow'd; but his fate more hard,

Gain'd but one trump, and one plebeian (3) card.

[1. Ornamental epithets. 2. Metaphorical terms, borrowed from the art of war. 3. Also metaphorical; so Virgil' says vulgus, of bees and stags.]

From these passages it will be seen that by means of metaphors a poet increases the dignity or beauty of a common subject, by investing it with the terms, and thus communicating to it the interest of objects of a superior class. Another great use of metaphors is to make up for the deficiencies of language. For, since a metaphor is a brief simile, it often enables us to convey an idea more exactly, as well as more briefly than common words would permit.

Those metaphors are most common in Virgil which borrow the language of human feelings in speaking of irrational objects; as,

Herba sitiunt. G. iv. 402.

Pontem indignatus Araxes. Æn. viii. 728.

C. 2. It is also for the purpose of elevation and adding dignity to the narrative, when Virgil uses the older forms of words instead of those in common use; as, gnatus for natus: volgò for vulgò: olli for illi. The same effect may be observed in Scripture language; as in "Bow down thine ear,” not "your."-" The Lord delivereth them out of their troubles."" Thou requirest truth in the inward parts," not you require.

Elevation is also effected by occasionally pronouncing the termination ed, as in loved, displeased, and in many other words in reading Scripture.

We need hardly remark that the older forms of words are frequently preferred in English poetry. Also, that a great many words used in prose are too common and frigid ever to be admitted into poetry, and many words which add dignity to poetry would seem unnatural and affected in prose.

The same effect is produced by compound words; and more particularly by words of foreign extraction, not only in Latin but in other languages: thus the Latin language is enriched by many words from the Greek, the English by

those of Latin derivation. Much judgment, however, is required in the use of foreign words. An English style, purely Saxon, would be deficient in elevation and variety; yet, if too many words of Latin origin are used the style will be frigid and heavy; compare for instance "vociferation that pervades the firmament" with a cry that pierces the sky." And on the other hand compare, "A style made of words, every one of them Saxon, will have less power to keep the mind on the stretch, than if some words of another tongue are sometimes used ;" and " A style composed of words entirely Saxon will have less power to command the attention than if some words of another language are occasionally introduced.”

PERIPHRASIS is a third mode of elevation and of relief and variety also (for which see Obs. F.).

Periphrasis is the expression of an idea circuitously instead of simply and directly. This, as we remarked in speaking of metaphor, evidently gives the poet a much greater choice of expressions, and, like ornamental epithets as well as metaphors, gives an opportunity of introducing brief episodes.

Periphrasis is of two kinds-periphrasis of words (for which see Pleonasm, Rule 25.), and periphrasis of idea; of this again part will be found included under Obs. C. 6. and Obs. F. 7, 8.: here we will mention

C. 3. METONYMY, which is the substitution of one word for another on account of some external connection between them; as cause for effect, material for the thing composed, and, what is yet more common, the guardian deity for the thing over which he presides; thus

ruit arduus æther
boumque labores

Diluit. G. i. 324.

Hæret lateri letalis arundo. Æn. iv. 73.

Bacchus (sc. the vine) amat colles. G. ii. 113.

Ceres (sc. the corn) medio succiditur æstu. G. ii. 279. So also Mars implies war; Thetis, the sea; Vulcanus, fire; Neptunus, the sea, &c.

C. 4. Other instances of Metonymy are (a.) material for the thing; as as for tuba, carina or nummus; pinus for navis; aurum for poculum; robur for fustis.

b. Effect for cause: fontes inducet umbrâ ; sc. trees causing shade; Scipiadas, cladem Libya; sc. auctores cladis; tristis senectus; sc. tristes reddens.