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ceos...

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Gr. 704 2.

Cf. II. 11.

Natural 56. Cro

soil was hard and heavy there was another ploughing in the autumn of the previous year. Thus the soil twice felt the chills of autumn (i. e. after the first and last ploughings), and twice the heat of sum mer (i. e. after the second and third). —49. Illius; sc. segetis. Ruperunt are wont to burst. The perfect is sometimes used, like the Greek aorist, to express what is habitual and customary. — 50. Ignotum; i. e. whose nature is unknown to us, as having been recently ac quired or not yet tried. Ferro... scindimus =aramus. See on Hor. C. I. 1. 11. Aequor=the level surface of the field. — 51 Ventos-coeli... morem: the (prevailing) winds and the vari ations (lit. various nature) of the weather. - 52. Patrios - locorum both the peculiar modes of cultivation and characteristics of (particular) localities. Patrios belongs to habitus as well as to cultus. There is a hysteron-proteron in cultus and habitus, since the mode of cultivation depends upon the character of the ground. A. & S. 323. 4 (2). — 54. Veniunt=proveniunt, crescunt. - 55. Arborei fetus fruit trees. Injussa sponte. pastures, where no seed has been sown, are referred to. ...odores, for crocum odoratum. Tmolus. See on Ov. M. IL 217 and XI. 152. — 57. Mittit; i. e. to Rome. Gr. 525. 6. A. & S. 265, R. 1. Sua; i. e. peculiar to their country. Gr. 449. II. 2. A. & S. 208 (8). Sabaei; a people of Arabia Felix. 58. Chalybes; a people in the northern part of Armenia. Their country was famous for its iron mines. Nudi = thinly clad; i. e. when working at the forge. Virosa... castorea strong-smelling castor. Castor was an animal substance obtained from the beaver, and highly valued as a medicine. Pontus; a country in the extreme northeast of Asia Minor, extending along the coast of the Euxine. 59. Eliadum palmas equarum the palms of the mares of Elis; i. e. the mares which win palms at the Olympian games in Elis. See on Hor. C. II. 16. 35 and C. IV. 2. 17. Epiros; a country in the extreme northwest of Greece, celebrated for its pastures and its horses. Gr. 46. 1 and 3. A. & S. 54-60. Continuo immediately, at It is to be connected with quo tempore primum, and with these = statim illo tempore, or eo ipso tempore, quo primum=at that very time when first. Has. Gr. 439 and 1. A. & S. 205, R. 2. Ex. Foedera conditions; i. e. that each country should have its peculiar character and productions.-62. Deucalion-jactavit. See Ov. M. I. 318 foll., 399 foll. — 63. Durum genus. Cf. Ov. M. I. 414 415. Ergo age. The subject of ploughing, interrupted by the digression at V. 50, is here resumed. — 64. Pingue is emphatic, as also is fortes in the next verse. Where the soil is rich, the plough ing should be early in the year and deep, thus requiring stout cattle. - 65. The rhythm of the line expresses the slow and laboring gait of

once. words is =

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oxen. Gr. 672. 2. A. & S. 310. 2.

...

Jacentes = lying exposed. 66. Maturis = mature, strong, hot; i. e. of midsummer heat.— 67. Non...fecunda, opposed to pingue in v. 64. Sub ipsum Arcturum toward, just before, the rising of Arcturus; i. e. the 5th of September. See on Ov. M. II. 176. — 68. Tenui . . . suspendere sulco to raise it with a light furrow (leaving it, as it were, hanging in air). — 69. Illic in the former case; referring to vv. 64-66. Laetis. See on v. I. Herbae: weeds. 70. Hic in the latter case; referring to vv. 67, 68. Arenam soil. -71. Alternis (sc. vicibus) alternately; i. e. every other year. Idem at the same time, likewise; implying that the rules already given do not exhaust the subject. Tonsas reaped. Novales fallow lands;

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an instance of prolepsis (anticipation); the adjective representing that as already done which in reality is to follow as a consequence of the action of the verb on which its substantive depends. Cf. Ov. M. I. 184 and note. -72. Segnem = inactive, devoid of life, exhausted; i.e. by bearing the previous crop. Situ by lying, by rest. Some understand it of the scurf (in this case, of the incipient sward) that forms on the surface of ground allowed to lie undisturbed. Durescere to harden; as the soil naturally does when not cultivated. Four methods of reinvigorating the exhausted soil are here mentioned: Ist, by allowing it to rest every second year (v. 71); 2d, by rotation of crops (v. 73); 3d, by manuring (v. 80); 4th, by burning the stubble (v. 84).—73. Mutato sidere; because corn would not be sown at the same time of year as pulse. A sign or constellation (see on v. 1) is said to be changed when one comes in place of another. The meaning seems to be, that on the land where leguminous plants have been sown in the spring, corn may be sown in the following autumn; though some understand it of the autumn of the following year. Farra (lit. spelt) may be taken for bread-corn in general. 74. Laetum siliqua. See on v. I. Gr. 414. A. & S. 247. 1 (1). Quassante shaking, rattling. 75. Tenuis slender, slight. So called because its halm is so slender and its seed so small, compared with those of the bean or pea. Tristis 126. Lupini; limiting calamos and silvam. brittle; i. e. when dry. Calamos silvamque ; expressing the luxuriance of the crop. Silvam sonantem rattling growth. -77. Urit consumes, exhausts. The general sense is that the same crop, year after year, will exhaust the soil. Flax, oats, and poppies are specified merely as significant instances of this rule. The poet then adds that, though this is the tendency of these crops in themselves, it is not so when they alternate with each other, if only the soil is renovated after each crop by plentiful manuring. Avenae; sc. seges. 78. Lethaso = Lethean; derived from Lethe, the river

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-

bitter. See II. -76. Fragiles

of oblivion in the lower regions. It is descriptive of the strongly narcotic power of the poppy. - 79. Sed — labor = but still the task (of the field; i. e. the strain on the field) will be light (if you sow) alternately. Alternis. See on v. 71. Arida = parched, exhausted. Tantum ne ... .. pudeat only do not be ashamed. Shame restrains from excess in anything. -82. Sic quoque is explained by mutatis fetibus. Rest is gained by a change of crops as well as by leaving the land untilled. 83. Nec modifies the whole sentence, and not nulla alone. Nulla... inaratae gratia terrae the thanklessness of unploughed land; i. e. of land lying fallow. Gratia is said of land which repays the labor bestowed on it. By rotation of crops, the land, being sown every year, has no period of thanklessness, or unproductiveness, as when it lies fallow every other year. 84. Steriles agro; i. e. from which the corn has been taken, leaving nothing but stubble. Incendere. Gr. 549. A. & S. 269. Profuit. See on v. 49. 85. Atque... flammis. The dactylic rhythm expresses the lively crackling of the flames. See on v. 65.86. Sive... sive . . . seu = whether . . . or... or; the various ways in which burning the stubble was supposed to act on the soil. The first only is the true one. - 88. Vitium = vicious quality. 89. Plures... vias et caeca . . . spiramenta = more channels and hidden pores. — 90. Qua = where, by which This relative adverb frequently refers to nouns either of the singular or plural number. Cf. A. V. 590.-91. Durat. The object of this verb seems to be the land itself rather than the pores. - 92. Tenues = subtle, penetrating. Pluviae; sc. adurant (= noceant) from adurat, which, however, belongs to it in sense only so far as it contains the general notion of injuring. The figure is called zeugma, and is very common. Gr. 704. I. 2. A. & S. 323. 1 (6) and (2) (4). Rapidi = scorching. 93. Acrior. Gr. 444. I. A. & S. 256, R. 9 (a). Penetrabile = penetrating. Frigus adurat. Ure and aduro are used of cold as well as heat, because some of its effects are analogous to those of heat. With frigus the verb may be rendered “freeze.”—94. Rastris. Our way, after breaking a field, is to give it a good tearing up with a heavy harrow with iron teeth, drawn by oxen or horses. The ancients used to break the clods by manual labor with a rastrum (a kind of heavy rake with iron teeth); and then, to pulver. ize it, the men drew over it bush-harrows (crates), nearly the same as now in use. Inertes = inactive; i. e. unproductive (when left to themselves).—96. Flava. This epithet was probably suggested by the golden hue of ripening corn. - Neque ... nequidquam; i. e she does not regard him vainly, as if she were an idle spectator, or were unable to help. -97. Et; sc. multum juvat arva. Proscisso -aequore =which he raises in the first breaking up of the field.

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Proscindo is the technical term for the first ploughing. On aequore, see on v. 50. Gr. 430; 431. 2. A. & S. 257 and N. 1. Terga : the sods, ridges; i. e. those made by the proscissio, or first ploughing. -98. Rursus-aratro with turned plough again breaks through (the ridges, terga) cross-wise. This cross-ploughing took place in the summer or early autumn, five or six months after the proscissio. — 99. Frequens. Gr. 443. A. & S. 205, R. 15 (a). Imperat; i. e. acts like a master, makes his land obey him. -100. Solstitia=aestates. Cf. E. VII. 47. Here begins a new division of the subject. See introductory Analysis. —101 Laetissima. See on v. 1. Pulvere. Gr. 414. A. & S. 247. 1 (1). Farra. See on v. 73. -102. Nullo -messes; i. c. as in a dry winter. Mysia; a most fertile region of Asia Minor, on the Hellespont, at the foot of the range (Ida) of which Mount Gargarus was the most conspicuous point. Cultu. Gr. 414. A. & S. 247. 1 (2). — 104. Ipsa ; i. e. not only is it celebrated by all others, but is even itself astonished at its own fertility. Gargara. Gr. 141. A. & S. 92. 1. —104. Quid dicam; sc. de eo: a form of enumeration, introducing a subject which is to be treated only cursorily before hastening to another topic. It here implies commendation. Comminus in close contest; i. e. as soon as the seed is sown, attacking and levelling with the hand or rake the ridges (cumulos) of sand. The metaphor is from a soldier throwing his lance, and then coming to close quarters sword in hand. Some make comminus = im. mediately, without delay. -105. Insequitur pursues; implying persevering assiduity. Ruit= levels; here used transitively. Cf. A. I. 35, 85. Male pinguis : = non pinguis; i. e. barren, unfertile. 106. Satis into the sown fields. Gr. 386. A. & S. 224. Sequen tes; because they follow whithersoever they are led. - 107. Morientibus - herbis with its dying herbage is in a glow. Herbis; not the grass, but blades of corn. Gr. 430. A. & S. 257. It would seem from vv. 106, 108 that the poet wished to indicate two modes of irrigating; the one, for fields in a level country, where by means of a dam the water of a stream is brought in over them; the other, for fields on a declivity, where the water is brought down on them from the springs near the summit. -108. Ecce, at once giving the picture and expressing the unexpected relief to the soil. Supercilio. Gr. 425. 2 and 3. 4. A. & S. 251. Clivosi tramitis = of its pathway down the hill; i. e. from the brow of the hill, when used for irrigation. 109. Lēvia, not lěvia; implying that the path, or channel, has been often thus used.-110. Ciet wakes. Scatebris=

=

with its bubbling rills. Temperat tempers, cools, refreshes. 111 Quid, sc. dicam de eo. See v. 104. Aristis. Gr. 414 and 2. A. & S. 247. 1 (2). — 113. Quum-sata = as soon as the crops render the furrows level; i. e. as soon as the corn in the furrows is,

as high as that on the ridges between the furrows. Quique; sc. quid dicam de eo. Paludis of the pool; i. e. of the stagnant water in the furrows. 114. Arena. Gr. 414 and 4. A. & S. 247 and 3. Referring either to ditches leading to a sandy place, where the water is absorbed, or to drains half filled with small stones or gravel, which take up the water as it passes along. -115. Incertis mensibus; the months when the weather is most changeable; i. e. the spring and autumn; here the spring. Gr. 426. A. & S. 253. — 116. Exit; ie from its bed or banks. Cf. A. II. 496. Et-limo and over. spreads all things far and wide with a coating of mud. Gr. 430; 431 and 2. A. & S. 257 and N. 1. → 117. Unde — lacunae; i. e. if the water is not drawn off before the sun begins to act on it, it might rot the plants. Sudant; as the water would be drawn up by the heat of the sun. Lacunae ; i. e. the furrows, the spaces between the ridges. 118. Nec... nihil : somewhat, in some degree. Gr. 585. A. & S. 277, R. 3. Quum = although. Haec... sint... experti have tried these (expedients). — 119. Versando; like vertere, v. 2, with a further notion of frequency. Gr. 566. 3. A. & S. 275. III. R. 4, N. 2, last sentence. Improbus = greedy, destructive. 120. Strymoniae; because cranes abounded about the river Strymon in Thrace. Intuba succory. It would be injurious both directly as a weed, and indirectly as attracting geese, which are fond of it. -121. Umbra; i. e. of trees and useless plants. Pater; Jupiter, who was king during the silver age, in which toil began, as Saturn had been in the golden. See on E. IV. 5 and 18 foll. -122. Haud. Gr. 584. 3. A. & S. 191, R. 3. Primus; sc. illorum, qui mundum rexerunt, -123. Movit= fecit moveri, arari: as a man is said to do the thing that he causes to be done. Mortalia corda the intellects of men. The heart was frequently spoken of as the seat of thought and emotion. Acuens; as we speak of sharpening the intellect. — 124. Passus; sc. est. Sua regna; i. e. mankind over whom he ruled.—125. Ante Jovem; i. e. ante Jovis regnum; i. e. in the golden age. -126. Ne... quidem. Gr. 602. III. 2. A. & S. 191, R. 3 (a). Signare; sc. limite. Gr. 549 and 1. A. & S. 269 and R. 2. — 127. In — quaerebant = they made acquisitions for the use of all; i. e. what they acquired they put into a common stock. Ipsa See on E. IV. 21; 23. — 128. Liberius; i. e. than now. It seems to include both generosity and freedom from external constraint. Nullo poscente; i. e. nullo cogente, is the cause of the liberius. Ci E. IV. 18. —129. Virus. Gr. 47. II. A. & S. 51. Atris = deadly. It is a common epithet of serpents, and sometimes it is not easy to say whether it has its primitive sense of "black," or its derivative meaning of "deadly," though it may include both. Cf. E. IV. 24.130. Lupos. Gr. 375. A. & S. 239. Wolves are used here for