annually exported from Ceylon from 8,000 to 10,000 bales of cinnamon, each weighing 861b Dutch, or about 92 English. This war, which was very unfortunate for the King of Kandy, was extremely expensive to the Dutch. The chief advantage they obtained was the entire possession of the harbours and coasts round the island. By the treaty of peace agreed upon on this occasion it was stipulated that the Dutch were to be permitted to bark cinnamon in the king's territory to the westward of the Balany Kandy, which is a range of mountains that stretches nearly north and south, and is about 12 English miles west from Kandy. It was also stipulated that the king was to receive five pagodas per bale, or about 5d. per lb., for all that which his subjects barked and prepared in his country to the eastward of Balany Kandy. The cinnamon collected by the Dutch was estimated to cost them about this price. The cinnamon furnished, in consequence of this treaty, by the subjects of the King of Kandy, was of an inferior quality, being mixed with thick, coarse, and ill-prepared bark.

The Dutch accepted only of what they deemed of a good quality, and paid for the quantity they received. The Kandians considered this an unprofitable speculation, and soon ceased to furnish cinnamon of any quality. Posterior to the war of 1766 Ceylon did not export annually more than from 6,000 to 7,000 bales of cinnamon. This defalcation has been ascribed to the discouraging conduct of the King. It was not to be expected that he

should have entered cordially into a measure to which he had been forced to yield a reluctant acquiescence. So unwilling was the King of Kandy to extend the limits for cutting cinnamon, that he on one occasion refused 5,000 pagodas which were offered to him by the Dutch for permission to peel cinnamon for five months in a district to the eastward of Balany.

Stavorinus, who visited the Malabar coast in the years 1775 and 1778, says that an annual quantity of 1,000,000 lb. of cinnamon is said to be exported from this coast to the Gulf of Persia and to the Red Sea. A small quantity is likewise sent to Europe. This quantity is incredible.

Fra Paolino da San Bartolomeo had, from his long residence, profession, and studies, an infinitely better opportunity of learning the internal state of the country, as well as the export trade, than Stavorinus, who was only an occasional visitor. He arrived in India in 1776, where he resided 13 years. He tells us that the English purchased cinnamon from the king of Tranvancore, at the rate of about 80 rupees a candy, or about 500lb, avoirdupois, which is nearly two fans per lb., and that Malabar supplied at least 500 candies, amounting to 250,000 lb. He adds, that "the Dutch do not wish the cinnamon to thrive, and extirpate the trees in Malabar wherever they find them, in order that their cinnamon which grows on Ceylon may not become of less value." The statements of the learned Carmelite appear in general to deserve belief, except relating to the subject of religion,

and

and then his opinions and conduct seem to be at variance with his usual good sense.

Mr. Wilcocke, the translator of the voyages of Stavorinus, in his note to the work, says, that in 1778, 600,000 lb. of cinnamon were disposed of at the Europe sale, at about 11s. sterling per lb., being part of the imports from Ceylon. In an appendix to that work, he gives a statement of the quantities of cinnamon and cinnamon oil sold at the Dutch East India Company's sales from 1775 to 1779:

Pounds of cinnamon in 1775, 400,000-1776, 400,000-1777, 400,000-1778, 350,000-1779, 300,000.

Ounces of oil of cinnamon, in 1775, 240-1776, 160-1777, 160-1778, 160-1779, 160.

Being an annual average of 370,000 lb., which, if sold at 11s. per lb. the rate stated above for the year 1778, amounts to 203,500l.

The encroachments of other nåtions into the cinnamon trade continued to give the Dutch great alarm. These encroachments, which were never regarded with indifference, had been making gradual, but steady, advances. A letter from the Dutch India Directors, addressed to the Supreme Government, bearing date Dec. 29, 1787, expressly states, that "We have great need of a considerable quantity of the best cinnamon to put a stop to the consumption of the Chinese, and the cinnamon imported by other nations; and by that circumstance, to occasion their not yielding a profit any longer, prevent their importation; and by these means ours will retain that general esti

The average quantity imported into Holland in each year of the preceding period is 345,092 lb. and the average annual amount 199,1951. Ss. being about 11s. 6d. per lb.

This statement evinces that the exportation of cinnamon was on the decline: it still, however, retained its price. The rivalship of the China cinnamon trade, and the difficulties and impediments occasioned by the King of Kandy to the collecting of cinnamon in his territories, may be assigned as the chief causes of the diminution of the cinnamon commerce in Ceylon. The Kandian Court, although unsuccessful in the resistance it made against the Dutch, remained unconquered, and entertained a proud spirit of independence, a constant enmity, and deep resentment, against its invaders, for the many attempts they had made to humiliate and subdue its power. The misfortunes of 2 L2

both

both parties occasionally led to a cessation of hostilities, sometimes to mutual concessions, but never to amity.

To check the rivalship of the Chinese cinnamon, and to render themselves independent of the King of Kandy, the Dutch adopted means which experience has evinced to have been extremely prudent

The plan they adopted was the cultivation of cinnamon in their own country. Cinnamon began to be cultivated in very small quantity on Ceylon about the year 1765; the propriety and necessity of the measure became more evident; and succeeding circumstances rendered it more and more imperious to extend the cultivation by all the means of which they were in possession. Dr. Thunberg, who visited Ceylon in 1778, informs us, that " 7 by the unwearied exertions of governor Falck, exceedingly large plantations of cinnamon had been formed, and that the shoots of some of the plantations had been already three times barked." He particularly mentions large plantations of cinnamon being cultivated at Sitawake, a place situated near to the Kandian border, and about thirty miles from Colombo, at Grandpass, Merendahu, Matura, and Caltura.

Governor Falck died in February, 1785; and was succeeded in the colonial government by W. J. Vande Graaf, a zealous promoter of the cultivation of cinnamon. He prosecuted governor Falck's undertaking with zeal, judgment and perseverance. The district or portion of the belt of territory possessed by the Dutch,

is

which affords good cinnamon, bounded on the north by the Reymel river, a few miles to the northward of Negombo, and on the east by the river Wallaway, near Hambantotte. Beyond these boundaries few cinnamon plants grow; and their bark, when prepared, is not only deficient in the cinnamon odour and flavour, but sometimes bitterish, and unpleasantly tasted. Between these two rivers, but particularly between Negombo and Matura, many extensive fields were cleared, and planted with cinnamon. This must have been a work of infinite labour.

In Ceylon, trees and low brushwood rise with great rapidity, and cover the ground with a dense luxuriance of wood and foliage which is unequalled, except in the richest of the tropical islands. The business appears to have been entered upon with spirit, zealously prosecuted, and conducted with economy.

The labour of clearing and planting the government plantations was performed chiefly by the native Cingalese, as personal service.

By exciting a rivalship among the native headmen, liberally feeding their vanity with praise, and sometimes conferring high-sounding titles upon a few of them, and occasionally bestowing upon some of the most active a gold chain, a medal, or a silver hilted hanger, the labour seems to have, on their part, been executed with some degree of alacrity. Permanent situations, with a small monthly salary, were given to some of the headmen, who cultivated cinnamon extensively. Many spots of ground were planted,

planted, particularly in the Aloet Roer Corle, near to Negombo, by granting lands to the natives, who bound themselves and their heirs to plant one-third of the lands with cinnamon, and to guard the plants from being overgrown with brushwood, or destroyed by cattle. For every pingo (60 lb.) of good cinnamon produced on these plantations the owner was allowed two rix dollars (about 3s. 6d. sterling) The shoots were cut, and the bark prepared, by the government peelers.

Severe penalties were inflicted upon persons cutting, or otherwise destroying, cinnamon plants. On conviction, the culprit was severely fined, sentenced to hard labour in chains for a period of years, or banished to the Cape of Good Hope for a term of 25 years. These laws are still in force.

Political altercations between the Colonial Government and the Court of Kandy occurred in 1782, and also in 1792. During these altercations the peeling of cinnamon in the King's territory was greatly interrupted. These interruptions appear to have constantly increased; for we find that, on March 26, 1793, a letter was addressed to the King of Kandy, by order of Governor Vande Graaf,

to inquire if, although no embassy was sent, the King would allow cinnamon to be peeled in his territories." The King's letter in reply stated, "that the peeling of cinnamon in his territories was usually allowed when the Company's ambassadors asked for leave to do it; and that it was in this, and in no other manner, that it could be done."

The Governor declined sending

an ambassador on this occasion, and avows that he entertained fears that leave would not have been granted, and was afraid to risk the chance of a refusal, which might have prejudiced the respectability of the Company. It appears, however, to have been customary to send annually a messenger to the King of Kandy to request permission to cut cinnamon in his territory. To render this petition apparently less supplicatory and degrading, they dignified the bearer with the title of Ambassador, and used, after the treaty of 1766, to make a voluntary offer to the King of Kandy of leave for his subjects to collect salt in the neighbourhood of Chilan and Putlam, as an equivalent for his permission to cut cinnamon. This proposal was generally received by his Kandian Majesty with strong marks of disdain and indignation: on one occasion his reply was, "My subjects shall continue to collect salt on the coast as usual; and you have my permission to cut cinnamon as formerly." These embassies were expensive, and the ambassadors necessitated to submit to the most degrading and humiliating formalities. By the treaty of 1766, the ceremony of kneeling before his Majesty by the Dutch ambassadors was to be dispensed with. Subsequent events rendered it expedient for the Dutch to yield to the renewed request of the king of Kandy to comply with the ancient usages of his court. Neither the expense attending the embassies, nor the indignities offered to the ambassadors, or even the violation of right, would have alone or conjointly operated suc

cessfully

cessfully in preventing the customary annual message. The chief cause was, that the Kandian court received all the embassies and presents as a homage due to their monarch, who conducted himself with such an overbearing, haughty demeanour, even while the ambassadors were performing the degrading and abject ceremonies, which inveterate custom had rendered indispensably requisite to approach his presence, that the colonial government became alarmed less the native Cingalese should suppose that they were dependant upon the Kandian court; in fine, that they would entertain the same opinion as the king did himself.

By the year 1793, governor Vande Graaf's exertions in extending the propagation of the cinnamon plant had so far succeeded, that he was enabled to furnish the annual investment from the territory of the company, including the plantations. In a memorial addressed to Gerard Van Angelbeek, his successor, bearing date July 15, 1794, he congratulates him that in future they would not be under the necessity of flattering the court of Kandy any longer.

G. Van Angelbeek's government was short, but destructive to the labours of the two preceding governors in the cultivation of cinnamon. During his government little care was taken to defend it from cattle, or to prevent the plants from being overgrown with creepers and underwood.

Ceylon was reduced by a British force in February, 1796. The cinnamon found in the storehouses was sold by the captors to the

English East India Company for 180,000l. I have not been able to ascertain the number of bales captured by the army. In the latter end of 1797 the quantity of 13,893 bales was brought to England.

Mr. North assumed the government of Ceylon in October, 1798, but was under the control of the governor-general in India until the year 1802.

The English company, like the Dutch, engrossed the exclusive privilege of trading in Ceylon cinnamon: the natives of Ceylon, and all other persons, were debarred from the smallest participation in the commerce of this article. In December, 1798, a regulation was issued by the president in council, Fort St. George, directing that every ship, &c. on board which a quantity of cinnamon above 20 lb. might be found, without authority from government, should be confiscated, with all her cargo; and that for every pound of cinnamon, the quantity being less than 20lb., a penalty of 50 star pagodas shall be paid. This prohibition continues in force.

The same year a number of chalias were sent to the Malabar coast by the Ceylon government to bark and prepare casia. On proceeding to the forests, they discovered the cinnamon - tree growing in great abundance, which they divided into the fanciful sorts, or varieties, that they had been accustomed to do with the cinnamon produced in their own island. Specimens of the prepared bark were forwarded to Ceylon for the inspection of governor North. Mr. Brown, the agent of the East India Company

on