Twenty per cent. died of open can milk. As lectures have recently been given on this subject I need not dwell upon it. Oysters grown in contaminated water may produce typhoid and other intestinal diseases.

Meats may be contaminated from two sources -the animal may be diseased, or on account of unsanitary methods of handling, disease bacteria may be introduced.

Vegetables and fruits, especially when eaten raw, may be infected from the fertilizer used. Gelatine is peculiarly liable to contamination on account of the material from which it is made and also because glue is manufactured from very similar materials. It is a comparatively simple matter to bleach the glue and sell it for gelatine. When the latter has been made up into candy, ice cream, jelly or other food products, it is almost impossible to determine by chemical analysis if a pure product has been used. On account of the keen competition in prices, bleached glues are often sold for use in foods. Not more than a year ago I had occasion to analyze a sample of glue used by one of our large ice cream manufacturers.

Not only is the consumer absolutely helpless to guard against food contaminated in this manner, but even the chemist and bacteriologist often find it difficult if not impossible to show by analysis of the finished product that unsanitary methods have been used in its production. The only effective method of protecting the consumer consists in an efficient system of inspection of all food factories. The only foods whose preparation are at present under such a system of inspection are meats and meat products, such as oleomargarine. This was brought about by a highly sensational exposure of the conditions ex

isting in the packing industry. Even this would probably have failed to bring about any efficient remedy if the cudgel had not been taken up by that exceptionally enthusiastic and vigorous president, Theodore Roosevelt. I have no doubt that conditions quite as bad can be found to exist in many other of the food industries. With the present attempts at economy on the part of the National Government, not only will there be no extension of its activities in enforcing pure food laws but there is danger that the work of the pure food squad will be greatly curtailed unless emphatic expressions of public opinion are made. There are plenty of unscrupulous manufacturers who, at the first indication of inactivity of the enforcement of the pure food laws, are ready to resume the manufacture and sale of unwholesome foods.

The inorganic poisons which are introduced into food naturally fall into two large classes, namely, dyes and preservatives, to which may be added a considerable number of substances used in smaller amounts, such as sulphuric acid, paraffine, clay, iron oxide, copper sulphate, etc.

The aniline dyes have been found very well adapted for use in foods, because of their brill

iant colors and stability under the treatment to which foods must be subjected. In this class of substances are found the most violent poisons as well as a number of absolutely harmless compounds. This great diversity of character is well illustrated by the following experiments: Using dinitrocresol, or saffron substitute, one-quarter of a gram was administered to rabbits by the oesophageal tube. For a short time no abnormal symptoms were shown. The respirations soon became more rapid. The animals became quiet, the hind limbs dragged and the animals fell to one side. The pupils were generally dilated and the breathing became more rapid and then ceased for a time. The eyes, the bulbs of the conjunctiva, were insensitive and the pupils strongly Finally

dilated. The extremities twitched.

spasms supervened as a general rule, and Cheyne Stokes respiration occurred. The intervals between the respirations increased until they reached 10 to 15 seconds, when death ensued from asphyxia. These symptoms usually occupied 20 to 30 minutes.

Dogs died with similar symptoms from doses as small as 0.1 gram, the toxic dose for dogs being 7 to 10 milligrams per kilo of body weight. A woman died in five hours after taking by mistake 4.5 grams of saffron substitute.

The following experiments were carried out with fuchsin: Two rabbits were fed one-half gram daily in 50 grams of barley for several weeks without showing any ill effects whatever. Other rabbits were fed 15 grams of the dye in 15 grams of barley for two weeks without showing any ill effects. One per cent. solutions of the dye were injected directly into the blood

January, 1910

of the rabbits without showing any ill effects. Dogs were fed 20 grams daily, while a man took 32 grams in a week without showing any ill effects.

An investigation of the health of 52 workmen employed in a fuchsin factory showed that there had been no cases of ill health, although some of the workmen had been employed for as long as 18 years.

While a few harmless dyes of this character have been found, unfortunately it is extremely difficult to prepare these compounds in pure condition. Not only do different dyes occur together, but arsenic is a constant constituent in considerable quantity. This is due to the fact that in the usually long process of manufacture a number of the chemicals used will almost invariably be found to contain arsenic, a portion of which will remain with the dye. It is also advantageous in many cases to form a compound of the dye with a metallic compound, which is usually poisonous.

Under these conditions, it is not surprising that poisonous aniline dyes have been used in foods. Under the Food and Drugs Act of 1906, the U. S. Department of Agriculture employed Dr. Barnard Hesse, of New York, an eminent specialist in aniline dyes, to prepare a list of dyes which could be used in foods. He reported, after an exhaustive investigation, that there were seven of such dyes out of the thousands which have been produced. Under a ruling of the Department of Agriculture, these seven may be used in foods and no others.

In

Before Dr. Hesse undertook this investigation, various dye houses sold so-called pure food dyes. The investigation showed that none of these lists contained all of these seven dyes. every case one or more poisonous dyes were inIcluded in the list. There were even cases where a manufacturer would quote a passage from some authority to prove the harmlessness of one of his dyes, while in the same book could be found passages condemning as poisonous another dye on his list. I quote this incident to show the great need of Government supervision of our food supplies.

After the seven harmless dyes had been selected, the problem of preparing them in pure condition free from admixture with other dyes, as well as arsenic and other by-products of the manufacture, remained to be solved. Several firms undertook the task and at great expense have succeeded in developing methods for preparing dyes which meet the specifications of the National Government. The chemists of the Department of Agriculture are also developing methods of testing foods for the presence or absence of these dyes.

In the meantime, most of the foods manufacturers have continued to use the same dyes as in the past, paying little or no heed to the pure food movement, and will doubtless continue to

27

do so until the pure food law is enforced. The following incident shows the methods in vogue: A salesman for a large dye house sold, in the course of his business, a considerable quantity of a dye which is known to be poisonous. In a short time his customer stated that he desired to purchase another lot of this dye. The salesman, out of curiosity, asked him how he had used so much of the dye in so short a time. He stated that he had colored foods with it. If the salesman had known that the color would be used in foods, he would have sold him a different dye. As the food had already been sold it could not be recalled. Possibly some of the customers who were made ill were attended by physicians in this audience without knowing the cause of their illness.

Copper sulphate should be mentioned with the dyes. It is used solely for the purpose of preserving the green color of canned vegetables. I need not discuss the poisonous character of the salts of copper before this audience. Fortunately, the use of copper sulphate has not become common with domestic canners but has been confined almost entirely to inported foods. The amount allowed has been restricted, so that vegetables containing excessive quantities are no longer found on the market, while all foods containing this coloring matter are clearly marked to indicate this fact.

Probably no substances used in foods have given rise to so much discussion as the chemical preservatives. Many questions are involved in a discussion of this subject, which in all its ramifications is by no means simple.

The question which first presents itself is whether the preservatives themselves are poisonWe find that they differ very much in this respect. Formaldehyde is perhaps the most violent poison. A youth who took 22 grams in a 4 per cent. solution suffered from violent vomiting and died in 29 hours.

Violent abdominal pains were experienced for several days by a man who took milk containing I part in 12,500 of formaldehyde.

In an experiment upon kittens, three out of five died on being fed milk containing I part in 50,000.

Digestion experiments show that formaldehyde hinders digestion by pepsin and trypsin and in dilution of 1 to 1000 prevents action by rennin.

It is well known that formaldehyde hardens and renders insoluble such substances as albumin and gelatine. This action may account for its interference with digestion.

These poisonous properties of formaldehyde have been so generally recognized that its use in foods has been very generally condemned. The opposition to its use has been particularly vigorous, because it was used to a considerable extent for the preservation of milk. Both the public and the health authorities have been far

more interested in safeguarding the milk supply than any other food.

Hydrofluoric acid and fluorides have been used to some extent recently, especially in liquors such as beer. The acid is probably quite as poisonous as formaldehyde. Contact of a dilute solution with the skin often produces a feeling of soreness which persists for weeks.

Sulphurous acid and sulphites have been used to a very large extent in meats, fruit and fruit products, liquors and candy. This acid is very irritating to the mucous membrane and causes inflammation of the gastric mucous membrane as well as marked corrosion of the layers of the stomach wall and also affects the neighboring organs. Doses of one-half gram of sulphite in dilute solutions causes oppression and discomfort. Large doses produce headache, vomiting and diarrhea. The presence of a 5 per cent. solution in the stomach produces death.

Numerous feeding experiments on dogs and cats by various investigators have shown that these animals often show no apparent ill effects even when the experiments are carried on for many months, some animals even gaining in weight. Some animals suffer from purging, loss of appetite and of weight. On killing the animals and examining the organs, the kidneys invariably show inflammatory changes. This may not be apparent to the naked eye, but the microscope reveals the presence of fatty degeneration. Experiments of this kind would seem to indicate that feeding experiments on vigorous young men for a limited period cannot be conclusive with reference to a preservative, as the ill effects may be revealed only when serious organic disease of the kidneys or abdominal organs has been fully developed.

Personally, I should not be willing to use food. containing sulphite in any large quantity on account of the action on the mucous membrane, as indicated by the serious throat troubles which result from inhaling only slight amounts of sulphur dioxide.

Borax and boric acid reduce the amount of starch digested by the saliva and arrest the action of rennin, while they do not seem to have much influence on the pepsin and amylopsin.

In feeding experiments on animals, dogs, rabbits and pigs show no ill effects. When very young kittens were fed on borated milk they were troubled with diarrhea, became greatly emaciated, and died in from 3 to 5 weeks, while 3 months' old kittens were apparently not affected.

In Dr. Wiley's experiments on young men he noted loss of appetite and body weight, headache and nausea. Boric acid is undoubtedly not as poisonous as formaldehyde, sulphurous and hydrofluoric acid.

Salicylic and benzoic acids and their salts are probably still less poisonous. The former is at well-known medicine, being a specific for rheumatism. It cannot be administered in all cases,

however, on account of its disturbing action on various organs. It irritates the stomach, producing pain and vomiting. It is excreted by the kidneys, occasionally irritating them and producing albuminuria and even hæmaturia. It has a depressing action on the heart. Salicylism follows its use with 60 per cent, of people-deafness, headache, delirium and vomiting, hemorrhage in various parts of the body, heart failure and death. A physician reported that he could reduce his pulse beat by 10 a minute by a dose of 10 grains. Where the kidneys or heart is diseased, great care must be exercised in its use.

Benzoic acid is less toxic in its effect on the system than any of the preservatives which have been extensively used. It is excreted from the system in the form of hippuric acid through the kidneys adding to the work of these already much overloaded organs. The most recent study of the effect of this acid on the system when consumed with food has been made by the Referee Board of the U. S. Dept. of Agr. of which Dr. Ira Remsen is the Chairman. Three separate squads of young men were experimented upon under the direction of Prof. Chittenden at Yale Univ., Prof. Long at the Medical School of Northwestern Univ., and Dr. C. A. Herter of Columbia Univ., at his private laboratory. private laboratory. The observations consisted of very careful medical observations of the subjects, including counts of the red and white corpuscles of the blood, also daily analyses of the urine and feces as well as the food consumed. The benzoic acid was given in the form of the sodium salt, a portion being added to each of the three meals. No evidence of disturbance of the digestion was discovered. The feces as well as the urine were normal throughout the experiments. The kidneys did not seem to be affected in any way. A careful study of the coefficient of digestibility of all constituents of the food showed nothing abnormal. The nitrogen was excreted as usual. So far as any changes in body weight were observed, the subjects increased in weight. Practically identical results were reported from each of the three squads. The board reported that up to 4 grams per day of sodium benzoate was without any effect on the digestive and nutritive processes.

No experiments were conducted by the board on children. In view of the results of previous

experiments, it is possible that the immature or the aged may suffer from the consumption of a preservative, while vigorous young men might be unaffected.

A still more important question has not been. answered by the Referee Board. Even though the preservative itself is entirely harmless, foods prepared with it may be unwholesome and inferior to foods prepared without it, so that it might be desirable to prohibit its use.

A study should be made of the action of preservatives toward bacteria. Among the large number of bacteria which gain entrance into

foods only a few give rise to the disagreeable odor and taste which we associate with decomposing foods. Substances have been selected as food preservatives on account of their ability to preserve the natural taste and odor of foods and not for their ability to prevent the growth of bacteria in general. Direct experiments on this point have shown that the action of bacteria is selective, that is the growth of some species is retarded far more than that of other species. The bacteriological examinations of preserved and unpreserved foods have shown that when the foods begin to give a disagreeable odor and taste the preserved foods contain a much larger number of bacteria than the unpreserved foods. In other words the preservatives prevent the growth of the bacteria which produce the foul odors and tastes and allow other bacteria to grow at a rapid rate. In round numbers, the preserved foods can contain about 4 times as many bacteria as the unpreserved before seeming to be spoiled.

A considerable amount of evidence has been produced to show that even in the absence of any specific disease germs, the consumption of foods containing a large number of bacteria increases the death rate. This has been repeatedly shown with public water supplies. If the bacterial content is reduced by filtration or other means, not only is there a reduction in the death rate due to typhoid and other diseases known to be due to water born bacteria, but the death rate due to other diseases is also materially reduced. The same result has been repeatedly observed with milk. The death rate among children is reduced when milk containing a smaller amount of bacteria is used.

It would appear therefore that the use of preserved food is a menace to public health because such foods may be consumed while swarming with bacteria.

Another very important question is whether the use of preservatives renders it possible for manufacturers to use inferior or decomposed foods. It appears that all preservatives are not equally adapted for such use. Formaldehyde has been used to a considerable extent to deodorize eggs which were too badly decomposed to be sold. For this purpose the eggs are broken, the shells removed and the liquid treated with formaldehyde. This practice has been very largely stopped by the health officers.

Sulphites have been very largely used in the preparation of sausage meat or hamburger steak from the trimmings and odd ends which accumulate in the meat shops. These scraps must not be allowed to become too much tainted or the sulphite will not remove the odor. It is very effective, however, in restoring the bright red color to the meat which has become dark. On chopping such meat and adding the sulphite a very attractive sausage meat can be produced. Especially when it is exposed to the air the meat acquires a bright red color.

Taking human nature as it is, it would seem that the use of preservatives would not lead to the adoption of the most sanitary methods of handling foods. Food could be kept by the aid of the preservatives quite as long even though strict cleanliness were not observed. When we remember that bacteria will grow most luxuriously in the presence of the preservatives, the foods handled in this way cannot but be dangerous to health. One of the strongest reasons why the catsup manufacturers desire to use preservatives is that they have been accustomed to handle and keep tomato pulp in bulk until it is convenient to work it up into catsup. The finished product is also sold in barrels to restaurants where it is put into convenient receptacles for the table until the stock is exhausted. There is no question but that the liability to contamination of the catsup under these conditions is very great. A very thorough overhauling of the process would be necessary if the use of the preservative were prohibited.

A considerable number of food manufacturers have persistently refused to print on their labels a statement indicating the presence of a preservative in the food as sold. Only when forced by the pure food authorities have they consented to do so. Since the publication of the report of

the Referee Board that benzoate of soda is no more harmful than salt, the fight to remove the statement, "Preserved with 1/10 per cent. of benzoate of soda" has been renewed.

In requires no extensive investigation to show that the amount of salt consumed by different individuals is far from a constant quantity. I fancy that if we were unable to instantly ascertain by our sense of taste the presence of an excessive or insufficient amount of salt, considerable discomfort, if not illness, might arise. There is reason to believe that the amount of salt required by the system is subject to a fairly accurate control by means of the sense of taste so that we secure a pretty delicate adjustment of the amount needed to season various foods. Following this natural guide, we do not add much salt to meats, as they contain a considerable amount of sodium chloride. On the contrary, every good cook has always followed the rule of adding a considerable amount of salt to vegetables. Only in recent years has this rule been scientifically explained. Vegetables contain large quantities of potash salts which act as poisons. Physical chemistry has taught us that the potash can be expelled by an excess of sodium chloride or common salt.

The modern preservatives are tasteless. The consumer has a right to know if they are present in the article he purchases. I cannot see how the verdict of a thousand referee boards can deprive me of the right to eat what I fancy and refuse what I personally consider injurious. No amount of argument that salt, spices and vinegar are injurious can affect the matter. The

first morsel I taste will tell me if these substances are present, and if I have learned by experience that they are injurious to me I can reject the food so treated. Smoke undoubtedly contains matter far more poisonous than benzoate of soda, but smoked foods are instantly recognized, while we must depend on the label for the information that benzoate of soda or any other preservative has been used.

It also seems reasonable to demand that an investigation be made of the effect on children, the aged or infirm, of eating food containing benzoate of soda.

We also need assurance that the methods of handling and preparing foods when benzoate of soda is used are as sanitary as when the preservative is excluded. A great deal of information at hand leads us to conclude that this is not the case.

Under the head of mineral substances, a con

siderable amount of adulteration is still practiced. Synthetic jellies, composed of glucose, gelatine, aniline dyes, benzoate of soda and sulphuric acid are still manufactured in large quantities. These are largely consumed by the children of the poor. As the taste of the child is seldom discriminating when the article is sweet, the "consumer" in this case makes no complaint except that he does not get enough. The label generally gives the correct formula, thanks to the pure food agitation, but the class to whom these goods are sold do not realize the significance of the formula. There is a powerful influence at work which will gradually remove this ignorance. I refer to the small army of domestic science teachers in our public schools who are quietly giving the rising generation the elements of dietary science. As to what would be the effect on the health of the children of eating liberal quantities of a mixture of glucose, aniline dye, benzoate of soda and sulphuric acid, I am afraid the domestic science teacher would be puzzled for an answer. The scientific investigator has been too busy with other problems and has left the decision to the pitiless struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest and like other explorers, no record of the results has been presented.

Our knowledge of the effect of the consumption of other mineral ingredients is quite indefinite. Large quantities of scrap meat are treated with sodium sulphite and sold in the poorer district. Most of the flour used is bleached with the oxides of nitrogen. Many other incidents can be given of the addition of mineral substances to foods. New processes of preparing foods are being introduced almost daily. The task of determining in each case whether the product is wholesome involves laborious investigations under the best scientific investigation. We cannot entrust this task to the commercial agencies which are financially interested in the result. It must be undertaken and carried out by governmental agencies. This is possible only if such work is demanded by an intelligent public opinion.

THE WORK THE FEDERAL GOVERN-
MENT IS DOING FOR THE PROTEC-
TION OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH IN
THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE FOOD
AND DRUG ACT OF JUNE 30, 1906.*
By R. E. DOOLITTLE
Chief New York Laboratory.
U. S. Department of Agriculture,

FEEL that I am deeply indebted to your Secretary for the privilege of being present this evening and enjoying with you the able address of Prof. Olsen on the subject of Food Adulteration. You, of course, can realize what a great pleasure it is to one who is actively engaged in the enforcement of the food law to see this display of interest in his line of work. And it means much when a busy professor of one of our leading institutions of learning will devote the time that must have been required just had the pleasure of listening to this evenin the preparation of an address such as we have ing, and I want to tell you that it is encouraging for the cause of pure food when an association such as yours devotes an entire evening program to this subject.

We all appreciate the fact that every person should be interested in the study of the food that is furnished for the nourishment and maintenance of his own body and brought into his home for the sustenance of those entrusted to his But even more is this of importance to the physician upon whom rests to a large extent the health of the community.

care.

I feel, therefore, that you have conferred upon. me a great pleasure in inviting me to meet with you this evening to discuss this subject. I feel also that you have a right to call upon a member of our Department to learn just what is being done to protect the public health in the enforcement of the National Food law.

The National Food law, which, by the way, covers drugs as well as foods, is officially known. as the Foods and Drug Act, and it was passed by Congress on June 30, 1906, taking effect on the 1st day of January, 1907. But prior to the passage of the Food and Drug Act, Congress had enacted certain laws covering specific products, such as tea, oleomargarine, mixed flours, and had provided for the inspection of all food products imported into this country from foreign nations.

The Bureau of Chemistry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture had in its research work and its enforcement of some of the laws mentioned, made extensive studies of the subject of adulteration of food and drug products, so that when the law was enacted, the Department of Agriculture, which is charged with its enforcement, was well prepared in some ways to take up the work of enforcing the new law. There existed, however, the necessity of securing and organizing a proper working force. The Civil Service Commission was called upon for certificaRead before the Medical Society of the County of Kings, at Brooklyn, December 21, 1909.