Philosophy, if it would be adequate and successful-if it would give us results, at once reliable as truth, and as the grounds of practical and effective treatment of social maladies--must take due account both of the physical and spiritual side of man's nature.

The danger is not now of the neglect of such studies, but of their misdirection-of exceptional treatment and hasty generalizations. Such inquiries must now be pursued. They will be pursued. Men cannot again go to sleep on the brink of social volcanoes. But it is of the greatest importance they should be pursued on a solid and sufficiently comprehensive basis. All parties require this. Our theologians and preachers as well as our physical investigators, our statesmen as well as our philan thropists.

It is important to the religious instructor to know the physical conditions and requirements of social well-being, nor less important is it to the physicist and secular moralist to know the great foundation and pervasive principles of the spiritual economy. Whatever truth there may be in a favourite dictum of the day, that Science and Theology should be each allowed to pursue its independent course, it is not and cannot be applicable in the domain of Sociology. Here--and start from whichever side you may—the one inquiry will run into the other. You cannot keep them apart. And for the most unconquerable of reasons--because the physical and the spiritual meet and blend in that social life of man, which forms the subject-matter of the inquiry. Even John Stuart Mill admits that an Utilitarian scheme of morality needs, in order to its completeness, to embrace elements supplied by Christianity; and whatever may be thought of their possible coalescence, the admission at least suggests what will certainly be found to hold true, that religious teaching, if it is to meet current requirements, must take account, as well of the ascertained conditions of social well-being, as of the prominent characteristics and tendencies of our social life. The Christian teacher cannot afford to disregard discovery, or even popular theory, in any department of inquiry, least of all in the sphere of human society and life, with which he has so directly and constantly to deal. Familiarity with, and a just appreciation of, the results and tendencies of investigation in this sphere would keep him in healthy contact with current thought, and form no mean auxiliary in bringing home his appeals to the "business and bosoms" of men, while, in the absence of such recognition, he too often preaches quite away from their ruling sympathies, if he does not, by ludicrously traversing what is now matter of common knowledge, excite their ridicule and contempt. How deeply and directly important to the statesman and to the social philanthropist it is that the investigation of social questions should be comprehensive and thorough, is too obvious to need to be set forth.

In short, on all grounds, and whether we look at the one side or the other--whether our social phenomena are regarded more from the scien

tific or from the spiritual point of view-it is necessary that account be taken of all the leading constituents of man's nature, and which thus enter as elemental forces into our social life. It is only thus we can save ourselves from crude, one-sided, and misleading generalizations, or escape the most dangerous errors in philanthropy, social economy, and legislation. Social questions thus concern all; are important to all; should interest all; and because they cover the whole (practical) domain of human activity.

II. THEORY-BUCKLE.

THE question-To what do we owe our Modern Civilization-what is its initial force and moving spring?—is not a mere theoretical question. On the contrary, it is a deeply practical question. On its true solution, it not only depends whether we shall justly interpret the Past, but whether we shall steer a right and safe course for the Future. A correct theory will not necessarily guide us aright, but a hasty, one-sided, or exceptive generalization will, to a certainty, lead us more or less astray. Men do not adopt and pursue the right course necessarily, in virtue of social laws, as the heavenly bodies maintain and pursue their undeviating courses, in virtue of cosmical and mechanical laws. In proof that they do not, we need only refer to the fact, that no civilization has hitherto been more than partial,-that there have been large masses of the people which all civilizations have failed effectively to reach or raise. That, moreover, all the Civilizations which we name Ancient-which arose previously to the introduction and diffusion of Christianity—have perished. So fatally did they carry in them the seeds of dissolution that they became unable to resist the pressure of the surrounding barbarism. If our Modern Civilization is to survive, it must rest on a surer basis than theirs, it must embrace something which they failed to include. In no case were they more than partial—always leaving a large portion of the people beyond their scope or beneath their elevating power. Generally, the minority succeeded in raising themselves only by the depression of the majority. That these civilizations were temporary is indubitable, yet not more so as an historical fact, than that they were only partial in their scope and range.

Nor would it be difficult to show why they were partial, as inevitably as they were unenduring. A civilization that shall be all-comprehending must have a wider and deeper basis than they possessed. No civilization will ever embrace the whole body of a people that does not rest on the due development and exercise of all the powers and susceptibilities of our nature.

We lay this down as the great fundamental law of an abiding, allembracing civilization. Now, omitting for the moment any reference to other defects in the ancient civilizations, there is this one conspicuous want-they made no sound or adequate provision for the cultivation and exercise of man's moral and religious nature. Greek and Roman culture was imperfect and partial even at the epochs of its greatest brilliancy and success, and the range of the resultant civilization was correspondingly partial, never making any approach to embracing the whole community. It was partial, and could not be otherwise, because, failing in the element in which it mainly failed, it rested on a selfish basis, and was due mainly to a selfish stimulus. That the master forces to which the elevation and exclusive ascendency of an upper and governing class is due are selfish forces must be self-evident, when that ascendency is maintained on the backs of a large body of proletaires or slaves.

But it is now loudly proclaimed that our modern civilization is due to another but quite a different element, also in great part wanting in the Greek and Roman culture, that it depends on the discovery of the laws of nature, and the general diffusion of a knowledge of these laws. Mr. Buckle, who is engaged on the most pretentious work on Civilization as yet undertaken by, at least, any English writer, is labouring to establish this conclusion on the basis of historical induction. His theory-propounded with an air of arrogant and dogmatic exclusiveness not to be exceeded-is thus set forth, in brief, in the first page of his second volume :

"In the preceding volume I have endeavoured to establish four leading propositions, which, according to my view, are to be deemed the basis of the history of civilization. They are 1st, That the progress of mankind depends on the success with which the laws of phenomena are investigated, and on the extent to which a knowledge of those laws is diffused. 2d, That before such investigation can begin, a spirit of scepticism must arise, which, at first aiding the investigation, is afterwards aided by it. 3d, That the discoveries thus made increase the influence of intellectual truths, and diminish relatively, not absolutely, the influence of moral truths; moral truths being more stationary than intellectual truths, and receiving fewer additions. 4th, That the great enemy of this movement, and therefore the great enemy of civilization, is the protective spirit, by which I mean the notion that society cannot prosper unless the affairs of life are watched over and protected at nearly every turn by the State and the Church; the State teaching men what they are to do, and the Church teaching them what they are to believe."

Now we are not to say that this theory does not contain important elements of truth. No reflective or well-informed person would think for a moment of denying, that the success with which we have investigated the laws of nature, and availed ourselves of our knowledge of those laws to enlist her forces in our service, forms a main element in our modern

civilization. More than this, we may admit that it is the most prominent and conspicuous among the powers through which the exterior fabric of this civilization has been built up. That our modern civilization embraces much that none of the ancient civilizations had at command, and that its benefits have a wider diffusion than those of the ancient civilizations ever reached; all this may be admitted-indeed, no competent observer will ever think of denying so much-and yet it will by no means follow that Mr Buckle has propounded an adequate theory. All this may be true and yet that theory be only a partial and superficial generalization. All this may be true, and yet Mr Buckle be ignoring or discrediting the main element-the fundamental force-in our modern civilization, the power without which it never could have arisen, and in the absence of which should our modern physicists succeed in displacing it—that civilization must inevitably decay, and break up, as all antecedent civilizations have done. These conclusions it will be our object to establish and illustrate in the few papers that are to follow. Not that we mean to confine ourselves to the theory as propounded by Mr Buckle, or to adhere to any rigid method, or pursue any formal argument. Indeed, we shall soon see that Mr Buckle is only labouring to elaborate and give prominent expression to views and sentiments which have obtained wide currency among our modern scientific and literary men. The tendency in these days is certainly to discredit the influence of moral truths and exalt that of positive science, but few conclusions could be more hasty or unwarranted than that this is a law in the development of civilization, or that it is an advance in its progressive evolution.

III-UTILITARIANISM.

THE Utilitarian theory-zealously revived by John Stuart Mill in Fraser's Magazine, and, which enlists Mr Buckle's heartiest and most fervid homage is really no other than an endeavour to reduce Morality to an affair of calculation. The principle is essentially sordid. Assuming enjoyment to be the greatest good, and pleasure the highest end of existence, it sets pleasure or enjoyment before us as the one direct and exclusive object of pursuit; and, broaden it as you may, so as to comprehend our fellow-creatures, it never can get higher than "the greatest happiness of the greatest number."

"Life," says Mr Buckle, "has two sets of functions, one set of them increasing the happiness of the body, another set of them increasing the happiness of the mind. If we could suppose a man completely perfect, we should take it for granted that he would unite these two forms of pleasure in the highest degree, and would extract, both from body and mind, every enjoyment consistent with his own happiness and

* October and November, 1861.

We lay this down as the great fundamental law of an abiding, allembracing civilization. Now, omitting for the moment any reference to other defects in the ancient civilizations, there is this one conspicuous want-they made no sound or adequate provision for the cultivation and exercise of man's moral and religious nature. Greek and Roman culture was imperfect and partial even at the epochs of its greatest brilliancy and success, and the range of the resultant civilization was correspondingly partial, never making any approach to embracing the whole community. It was partial, and could not be otherwise, because, failing in the element in which it mainly failed, it rested on a selfish basis, and was due mainly to a selfish stimulus. That the master forces to which the elevation and exclusive ascendency of an upper and governing class is due are selfish forces must be self-evident, when that ascendency is maintained on the backs of a large body of proletaires or slaves.

But it is now loudly proclaimed that our modern civilization is due to another but quite a different element, also in great part wanting in the Greek and Roman culture, that it depends on the discovery of the laws of nature, and the general diffusion of a knowledge of these laws. Mr. Buckle, who is engaged on the most pretentious work on Civilization as yet undertaken by, at least, any English writer, is labouring to establish this conclusion on the basis of historical induction. His theory-propounded with an air of arrogant and dogmatic exclusiveness not to be exceeded-is thus set forth, in brief, in the first page of his second volume :

"In the preceding volume I have endeavoured to establish four leading propositions, which, according to my view, are to be deemed the basis of the history of civilization. They are-1st, That the progress of mankind depends on the success with which the laws of phenomena are investigated, and on the extent to which a knowledge of those laws is diffused. 2d, That before such investigation can begin, a spirit of scepticism must arise, which, at first aiding the investigation, is afterwards aided by it. 3d, That the discoveries thus made increase the influence of intellectual truths, and diminish relatively, not absolutely, the influence of moral truths; moral truths being more stationary than intellectual truths, and receiving fewer additions. 4th, That the great enemy of this movement, and therefore the great enemy of civilization, is the protective spirit, by which I mean the notion that society cannot prosper unless the affairs of life are watched over and protected at nearly every turn by the State and the Church; the State teaching men what they are to do, and the Church teaching them what they are to believe."

Now we are not to say that this theory does not contain important elements of truth. No reflective or well-informed person would think for a moment of deuying, that the success with which we have investigated the laws of nature, and availed ourselves of our knowledge of those laws to enlist her forces in our service, forms a main element in our modern