about the year 1300, published an almanac, of which there is a manuscript copy in the Savilian Library at Oxford. In this almanac the influence of the planets is thus stated:

'Jupiter atque Venus boni, Saturnusque malignus; Sol et Mercurius cum Luna sunt mediocres.'

The homo signorum' (man of the signs), so common in later almanacs, is conjectured to have had its origin from Peter of Dacia.

During the middle ages, Oxford was the seat of British science, mixed as that science occasionally was with astrology, alchemy, and other kinds of false learning; and from Oxford the standard almanacs emanated; for instance, that of John Somers, written in 1380, of Nicolas de Lynna, published in 1386, and others.

An almanac for 1386 was printed as a literary curiosity in 1812. It is a small 8vo, and is thus introduced: Almanac for the Year 1386. Transcribed verbatim from the Original Antique Illuminated Manuscript in the Black Letter; omitting only the Monthly Calendars and some Tables. Containing many Curious Particulars illustrative of the Astronomy, Astrology, Chronology, History, Religious Tenets, and Theory and Practice of Medicine of the Age. Printed for the Proprietor by C. Stower, Hackney, 1812. The Manuscript to be disposed of. Apply to the printer. Entered at Stationers' Hall.' The contents are-1. The Houses of the Planets and their Properties; 2. The Exposition of the Signs; 3. Chronicle of Events from the Birth of Cain; 4. To find the Prime Numbers; 5. Short Notes on Medicine; 6. On Blood-letting; 7. A Description of the Table of Signs and Movable Feasts; 8. Quantitates Diei Artificialis. Of the infórmation given under the head, 'Exposycion of the Synes,' the following extract may serve as a specimen : 'Aquarius es a syne in the whilk the son es in Jan', and in that moneth are 7 plyos [pluviose] dayes, the 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 15, 19, and if thoner is heard in that moneth, it betokens grete wynde, mykel fruite, and batel. Aquarius is hote, moyste, sanguyne, and of that ayre it es gode to byg castellis, or hous, or to wed.' The clumsy method of expressing numbers of more than two figures, shews that the Arabic notation had been but recently introduced, and was then imperfectly understood; for instance, 52mcc20 is put for 52,220.

Almanacs in manuscript of the fifteenth century are not uncommon. In the library at Lambeth Palace there is one dated 1460, at the end of which is a table of eclipses from 1460 to 1481. There is a very beautiful calendar in the library of the University of Cambridge, with the date of

1.482.

The first almanac printed in Europe was probably the Kalendarium Novum, by Regiomontanus, calculated for the three years 1475, 1494, and 1513. It was published at Buda, in Hungary. Though it simply contained the eclipses and the places of the planets for the respective years, it was sold, it is said, for ten crowns of gold, and the whole impression was soon disposed of in Hungary, Germany, Italy, France, and England.

The first almanac known to have been printed in England was the Sheapheards Kalendar, trans

Called I am Januyere the colde.

In Christmas season good fyre I love.
Yonge Jesu, that sometime Judas solde,
In me was circumcised for man's behove.
Three kinges sought the sonne of God above;
They kneeled downe, and dyd him homage, with love
To God their Lorde that is mans own brother.'

Another very early printed almanac, of unusually small size, was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries on the 16th of June 1842. Dr Bliss brought it with him from Oxford. It had been found by a friend of Dr Bliss at Edinburgh, in an old chest, and had been transmitted to him as a present to the Bodleian Library. Its dimensions were 2 inches by 2 inches, and it consisted of fifteen leaves. The title in black letter, was Almanacke for XII. Yere. On the third leaf, Lately corrected and emprynted in the Fletestrete by Wynkyn de Worde. In the yere of the reyne of our most redoubted sovereayne Lorde Kinge Henry the VII.'

Almanacs became common on the continent before the end of the fifteenth century, but were not in general use in England till about the middle of the sixteenth. Skilful mathematicians were employed in constructing the astronomical part of the almanacs, but the astrologers supplied the supposed planetary influences and the predictions as to the weather and other interesting matters, which were required to render them attractive to the popular mind. The title-pages of two or three of these early almanacs will sufficiently indicate the nature of their contents.

A Prognossicacion and an Almanack fastened together, declaring the Dispocission of the People and also of the Wether, with certain Electyons and Tymes chosen both for Phisike and Surgerye, and for the husbandman. And also for Hawekyng, Huntyng, Fishyng, and Foulynge, according to the Science of Astronomy, made for the Yeare of our Lord God M.D.L., Calculed for the Merydyan of Yorke, and practiced by Anthony Askham. At the end, 'Imprynted at London, in Flete Strete, at the Signe of the George, next to Saynt Dunstan's Church, by Wyllyam Powell, cum privilegio ad imprimendum solum.' Then follows the Prognostication, the title-page to which is as follows: A Prognossicacion for the Yere of our Lord M.CCCCC.L., Calculed upon the Merydyan of the Towne of Anwarpe and the Country thereabout, by Master Peter of Moorbeeke, Doctour in Physicke of the same Towne, whereunto is added the Judgment of M. Cornelius Schute, Doctour in Physicke of the Towne of Bruges in Flanders, upon and concerning the Disposicion, Estate, and Condicion of certaine Prynces, Contreys, and Regions, for the present Yere, gathered oute of his Prognossicacion for the same Yere. Translated

oute of Duch into Englyshe by William Harrys. At the end, Imprynted at London by John Daye, dwellyne over Åldersgate, and Wyllyam Seres, dwellyne in Peter Colledge. These Bokes are to be sold at the Newe Shop by the Lytle Conduyte in Chepesyde.'

An Almanacke and Prognosticatyon for the Yeare of our Lorde MDLI., practysed by Simon Henringius and Lodowyke Boyard, Doctors in Physike and Astronomye, &c. At Worcester in the Hygh Strete.'

A Newe Almanacke and Prognostication, Collected for the Yere of our Lord MĎLVIII., wherein is expressed the Change and Full of the Moone, with their Quarters. The Varietie of the Ayre, and also of the Windes throughout the whole Yere, with Infortunate Times to Bie and Sell, take Medicine, Sowe, Plant, and Journey, &c. Made for the Meridian of Norwich and Pole Arcticke LII. Degrees, and serving for all England. By William Kenningham, Physician. Imprynted at London by John Daye, dwelling over Aldersgate.'

Leonard Digges, a mathematician of some eminence, and the author of two or three practical treatises on geometry and mensuration, was also the author of a Prognostication, which was several times reprinted under his own superintendence, and that of his son, Thomas Digges. It is not properly an almanac, but a sort of companion to the almanac, à collection of astrological materials, to be used by almanac-makers, or by the public generally. It is entitled A Prognostication everlasting of Right Good Effect, fructfully augmented by the Author, containing Plaine, Briefe, Pleasant, Chosen Rules to judge the Weather by the Sunne, Moon, Starres, Comets, Rainbow, Thunder, Clowdes, with other Extraordinary Tokens, not omitting the Aspects of Planets, with a Briefe Judgement for ever, of Plentie, Lacke, Sicknes, Dearth, Warres, &c., opening also many naturall causes worthie to be knowne. To these and other now at the last are joined divers generall pleasant Tables, with many compendious Rules, easie to be had in memorie, manifolde wayes profitable to all men of understanding. Published by Leonard Digges. Lately Corrected and Augmented by Thomas Digges, his sonne. London, 1605. The first edition was published in 1553; the second edition, in 1555, was 'fructfully augmented,' and was imprynted at London within the Blacke Fryars.' In his preface he thus discourses concerning the influence of the stars (the spelling modernised): What meteoroscoper, yea, who, learned in matters astronomical, noteth the great effects at the rising of the star called the Little Dog? Truly, the consent of the most learned do agree of his force. Yea, Pliny, in his History of Nature, affirms the seas to be then most fierce, wines to flow in cellars, standing waters to move, dogs inclined to madness. Further, these constellations rising-Orion, Arcturus, Corona-provoke tempestuous weather; the Kid and Goat, winds; Hyades, rain. What meteorologer consenteth not to the great alteration and mutation of air at the conjunction, opposition, or

L. Digges's Prognostication was published 1553, 1555, 1556, 1567, 1576, 1578, 1605.

quadrant aspect of Saturn with either two lights? Who is ignorant, though poorly skilled in astronomy, that Jupiter, with Mercury or with the sun, enforces rage of winds? What is he that perceives not the fearful thunders, lightnings, and rains at the meeting of Mars and Venus, or Jupiter and Mars? Desist, for shame, to oppugn these judg ments so strongly authorised." All truth, all experience, a multitude of infallible grounded rules, are against him.'

In France, a decree of Henry III., in 1579, forbade all makers of almanacs to prophesy, directly or indirectly, concerning affairs either of the state or of individuals. No such law was ever enacted in England. On the contrary, James I., allowing the liberty of prophesying to continue as before, granted a monopoly of the publication of almanacs to the two Universities and the Company of Stationers. The Universities, however, accepted an annuity from their colleagues, and relinquished any active exercise of their privilege. Under the patronage of the Stationers' Company, astrology continued to flourish.

Almanac-making, before this time, had become a profession, the members of which generally styled themselves Philomaths, by which they probably meant that they were fond of mathematical science; and the astrologers had formed themselves into a company, who had an annual dinner, which Ashmole, in his Diary, mentions having attended during several successive years. The Stationers' Company were not absolutely exclusive in their preference for astrological almanacs. Whilst they furnished an ample supply for the credulous, they were willing also to sell what would suit the taste of the sceptical; for Allstree's Almanac in 1624 calls the supposed influence of the planets and stars on the human body heathenish,' and dissuades from astrology in the following doggrel lines :

'Let every philomathy
Leave lying astrology;
And write true astronomy,

And I'll bear you company.'

·

Thomas Decker, at a somewhat earlier period, evidently intending to ridicule the predictions of the almanac-makers, published The Raven's Almanacke, foretelling of a Plague, Famine, and Civill Warr, that shall happen this present yere, 1609. With certaine Remedies, Rules and Receipts, &c. It is dedicated To the Lyons of the Wood, to the Wilde Buckes of the Forrest, to the Harts of the Field, and to the whole country that are brought up wisely to prove Guls, and are born rich to dye Beggars.' By the Lyons, Buckes, and Harts, are meant the courtiers and gallants, or 'fast young men' of the time.

There was perhaps no period in which the prophetic almanacs were more eagerly purchased than during the civil wars of Charles I. and the parliament. The notorious William Lilly was one of the most influential of the astrologers and almanac-makers at that time, and in his autobiography not only exhibits a picture of himself little creditable to him, but furnishes portraits of several other almanac-makers of the seventeenth century, Dr Dee, Dr Forman, Booker, Winder, Kelly, Evans, &c. The character of

sider of it, and settle his affairs in time.'
Partridge, after the 29th of March, publicly
denied that he had died, which increased the fun,
and the game was kept up in The Tatler. Swift
wrote An Elegy on the Supposed Death of Par-
tridge, the Almanac-maker, followed by

THE EPITAPH.

Here, five foot deep, lies on his back
A cobbler, starmonger, and quack,
Who to the stars, in pure good-will,
Does to his best look upward still.
Weep, all ye customers, that use
His pills, his almanacs, or shoes;
And you that did your fortunes seek,
Step to his grave but once a week.
This earth, which bears his body's print,
You'll find has so much virtue in 't,
That I durst pawn my ears 'twill tell
Whate'er concerns you full as well
In physic, stolen goods, or love,

·

As he himself could when above.'
Partridge, having studied physic as well as astro-
logy, in 1682 styled himself Physician to his
Majesty,' and was one of the sworn physicians of
the court, but never attended nor received any
salary. His real epitaph, and a list of some of his
works, are printed by Granger in his Biographical
History. Partridge wrote a life of his contem-
porary almanac-maker, John Gadbury.

The Vox Stellarum of Francis Moore was the
most successful of the predicting almanacs. There
has been much doubt as to whether Francis Moore
was a real person, or only a pseudonym. A com-
munication to Notes and Queries, vol. iii. p. 466,
states that 'Francis Moore, physician, was one of
the many quack doctors who duped the credulous
in the latter period of the seventeenth century.
He practised in Westminster.* In all probability,
then, as in our own time, the publication of an
almanac was to act as an advertisement of his
healing powers, &c. Cookson, Salmon, Gadbury,
Andrews, Tanner, Coley, Partridge, &c., were all
predecessors, and were students in physic and
astrology. Moore's Almanac appears to be a per-
fect copy of Tanner's, which appeared in 1656,
forty-two years prior to the appearance of Moore's.
The portrait in Knight's London is certainly
imaginary. There is a genuine and certainly
very characteristic portrait, now of considerable
rarity, representing him as a fat-faced man, in a
wig and large neckcloth, inscribed "Francis
Moore, born in Bridgenorth, in the county of
Salop, the 29th of January 1656-7. John Dra-
pentier, delin. et sculp." Moore appears to have
been succeeded as compiler of the Almanac by Mr
Henry Andrews, who was born in 1744, and died
at Royston, Herts, in 1820. "Andrews was as-
tronomical calculator to the Board of Longitude,
and for many years corresponded with Maskelyne

• Francis Moore, in his Almanac for 1711, dates 'from

the Sign of the Old Lilly, near the Old Barge House, in
Christ Church Parish, Southwark, July 19, 1710.' Then
follows an advertisement in which he undertakes to cure
diseases. Lysons mentions him as one of the remarkable
men who, at different periods, resided at Lambeth, and
says that his house was in Calcott's Alley, High Street,
then called Back Lane, where he practised as astrologer,
physician, and schoolmaster.

and other eminent_men."-Notes and Queries,
vol. iv. p. 74. Mr Robert Cole, in a subsequent
communication to Notes and Queries, vol. iv.
p. 162, states that he had purchased from Mr
William Henry Andrews of Royston, son of
Henry Andrews, the whole of the father's manu-
scripts, consisting of astronomical and astrolo-
gical calculations, with a mass of very curious
letters from persons desirous of having their
nativities cast. Mr W. H. Andrews, in a letter
addressed to Mr Cole, says: 'My father's calcu-
lations, &c., for Moore's Almanac continued during
a period of forty-three years, and although,
through his great talent and management, he in-
creased the sale of that work from 100,000 to
500,000, yet, strange to say, all he received for
his services was £25 per annum.'

The Ladies' Diary, one of the most respectable
of the English almanacs of the eighteenth cen
tury, was commenced in 1704. Disclaiming as-
trology, prognostications, and quackery, the
editor undertook to introduce the fair sex to the
study of mathematics as a source of entertain-
ment as well as instruction. Success was hardly
to have been expected from such a speculation;
but, by presenting mathematical questions as
versified enigmas, with the answers in a similar
form, by giving receipts for cookery and pre-
serving, biographies of celebrated women, and
other entertaining particulars peculiarly adapted
for the use and diversion of the fair sex,' the
success of the work was secured; so that, though
the Gentleman's Diary was brought out in 1741
as a rival publication, the Ladies' Diary continued
to circulate independently till 1841, when it was
incorporated with the Gentleman's Diary. The
projector and first, editor of the Ladies" Diary,
was John Tipper, a schoolmaster at Coventry.

In 1733, Benjamin Franklin published in the
city of Philadelphia the first number of his
almanac under the fictitious name of Richard
Saunders. It was commonly called Poor Rich-
ard's Almanac, and was continued by Franklin
about twenty-five years. It contained the usual
astronomical information, besides many pleasant
and witty verses, jests, and sayings.' The little
spaces that occurred between the remarkable days
of the calendar he filled with proverbial sen-
tences inculcating industry and frugality. In
1757, he made a selection from these proverbial
sentences, which he formed into a connected
discourse, and prefixed to the almanac, as the
address of a prudent old man to the people attend-
ing an auction. This discourse was afterwards pub-
lished as a small tract, under the title of The Way
to Wealth, and had an immense circulation in
America and England. At the sale of the In-
graham Library, in Philadelphia, an original
Poor Richard's Almanac sold for fifty-two dollars.
Notes and Queries, vol. xii. p. 143.

In 1775, the legal monopoly of the Stationers'
Company was destroyed by a decision of the
Court of Common Pleas, in the case of Thomas
Carnan, a bookseller, who had invaded their ex-
clusive right. Lord North, in 1779, brought in
a bill to renew and legalise the Company's
privilege, but, after an able argument by
Erskine in favour of the public, the minister's
bill was rejected. The defeated monopolists,