drudgery of life. Furthermore, even for those who have abundant means, cultural development has its limits. Development through : religion is limited because impulses to objectify the ideal are so often thwarted. The religious man is never satisfied with mere contemplation of the Kingdom of God but aims to bring it to pass and complete satisfaction can come only with that. The idealist in his thirst for exclusive contact with the Immortals as a means of uninterrupted self-development finds indispensable some social contact with. other idealists. And he finds his self-development limited by cramped material circumstances and the drudgery of time-consuming work. Social conditions, therefore, set an upper limit to the development of personality. The conception of personal development is always relative to the period in which we live. In periods of oppression in the world's history it has been difficult or impossible for the masses to conceive of self-development at all. And great sections of them to-day have no such conception.

Not only is self-development always relative to the period of time, but also the individual measures his satisfactions, his denials, his inner attainments comparatively as between himself and others. This is true of the egoistic dispositions, for their satisfaction is never absolute; the individual considers whether he has attained the social standard of satisfaction. A family in a lower class is satisfied with what would seem to a family in an upper class an unbearable existence. When an upper class family, owing to financial reverses, has to "come down a peg" in its scale of living, it suffers annoyances—unless it finds relief in religion-which a family that has always had the lower scale never feels. The standard of living of each class is a relative one. As soon as a considerable number pass beyond the standard then a new standard is thereby created for that class.

The satisfaction of the sympathetic disposition, also, is relative. Members of a family who are accustomed to an extreme solicitude. for each other's material comfort and enjoyment often are repelled by the apparent lack of consideration of members of another family for each other. In each community there is a rough approximation to a vague standard of sympathetic behaviour. The standard depends not only on the kind of families that make up the community but also on prevailing conditions. In a war period people are less considerate of one another and expect of one another greater sacrifices than in time of peace. The satisfaction of the intellectual disposition, also, is

relative. What was conspicuous intellectual effort and attainment in the high school is no longer such in college, where leaders from many high schools congregate.

One great function of association is to bring people together in order to correct their relatively determined views of their spiritual condition by funishing opportunities for a broader comparison. By membership in a church that has been built up or transformed by a genuine minister the individual finds, through contacts there enjoyed, that there is a sympathy beyond what he ever experienced. If he goes into a group of missionaries, or into a radical political group of a certain type, he finds a still greater sympathy. By membership in a college the youth finds an intellectual earnestness and integrity beyond what he ever before realized. But if he goes to an institute devoted exclusively to research he finds still greater earnestness. The development of personality requires this great range of associations, this constant correction of comparisons previously made.

To furnish opportunities for these larger comparisons in space and time should be the great purpose of education. One reason for the shortcomings of educational institutions is that they let their purpose be defined for them by their patrons, in their rivalry for students and funds. And patrons generally have no clear and adequate conception of the meaning of the development of personality. They are so obsessed by particular impulses and controlled by local attitudes as not to be conscious of the possibilities of their own personal development. Only through coming to understand his own personality will the individual come to respect that of others, and to wish for them adequate opportunities. This understanding can come only through the proper education. The pupil must be brought into vital contact with the conditions and personalities of the past and with conditions and peoples everywhere in the present, if, in his comparisons, he is to transcend as far as possible the limits on his development that are imposed by the relativity of his judgements.

Education in this sense is impossible, however, while people live in conditions that suppress impulses for self-development. Repressive political and industrial conditions must be improved. The repressive influence of reactionary political and economic interests over education must be challenged. This is difficult because of the control exercised by those interests over public opinion through the press. Those interests for the most part control the press so that a literate but credulous and untrained population may be more easily con

trolled than an illiterate. This reactionary influence is seriously contested by only one force, that is, the men and women, who, because of unusual strength of the sympathetic and intellectual dispositions, have ideals that call for reforms in the existing order, and whose rivalrous and associated dispositions are satisfied by contesting with the leaders of reaction for social control as a means to the realization of a rational social order.

Two distinct tendencies may be observed in the reforms urged. One tendency is for thought to take a direction in which the sympathetic disposition will satisfy itself. It creates utopias, pacifist theories for the settlement of political conflicts, a "harmony of interests" for the settlement of industrial conflicts, that is, a system of ideas. which satisfies sympathetic and esthetic impulses. Then it turns to the world with a mild insistence that the world acknowledge the truth of these ideas. Undoubtedly if all the world did so men would find in them a new life. Unfortunately, however, the masses are so fearful and submissive and the interests that control so rivalrous and dominating and all of them are so habitual in their acceptance of the conventional and institutional expressions of these dispositions that the ideas of those who live a protected life, in which they can indulge their unusual dispositional impulses, make little impression.

The second tendency of idealism is that in which the imagination, under the impulsion of the sympathetic disposition, creates a progressive social order-discerns the tendency in all men to realize a freer development of personality, to exercise the creative impulse in work, and to enjoy a wider range of social contacts and other satisfactions. in recreation, but in which this idealistic order is subjected to criticism as to its practicability. The idealism is not, therefore, merely a system of ideas which function primarily for the satisfaction of the idealist, but involves a critical analysis of the motives of others and of the economic and other conditions of social self-realization. The idealist is not satisfied by his idealism but seeks its social realization.* And in the effort for this realization all the other dispositions are enlisted. Instead of opposing the use of force, therefore, use force when necessary. Social progress has been slow because those who have the sympathy and intelligence for this very reason usually lack power of action. Because the sympathetic is so opposed to the aggressive

Adams, Idealism and the Modern Age, 20-22.

Dewey, The Discrediting of Idealism, New Republic, Oct. 8, 1919, 287.

dispositions, those who, are especially gifted in sympathy and its intellectual manifestations shrink from action. They retreat within themselves and seek satisfaction through their own affective associations of ideas. Sharply distinguished from this contemplative idealist is the critical and fighting idealist. He does not shrink from the unpleasant revelations made by scientific investigation of social conditions. He does not lay down the book and seek to escape the unpleasantness of plain facts by not believing them. Mere intellect is weak unless supported by a vigorous resistful disposition. The intellect of the idealist is one capable of forming convictions. He is not afraid to face the facts, but he demands facts as the basis of his convictions. He would create a new social order not out of his head but out of the old. And in this use of the old in the creation of the new, he finds that his own personality experiences an all-round development that neither worldliness on the one hand, nor contemplative idealism on the other makes possible. Whatever the social influence and effect of his ideas and efforts, his own personal development shows the possibilities of human progress.

A PARTIAL LIST OF THE BOOKS, DOCUMENTS, AND

ARTICLES REFERRED TO IN THE TEXT

BOOKS

Adams, Brooks. The Theory of Social Revolutions. New York, 1913. Adams, George Plimpton. Idealism and the Modern Age. New Haven,

1919.

Adams, Henry Foster. Advertising and its Mental Laws. New York, 1916.

Addams, Jane. Democracy and Social Ethics. New York, 1907. Addams, Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Street. New York,

1909.

Alexander, F. Matthias. Man's Supreme Inheritance; Conscious Guidance and Control in Relation to Human Evolution in Civilization. New York, 1918.

Angell, Norman. The British Revolution and the American Democracy. New York, 1919.

Aristotle. Poetics. Edited and translated by S. H. Butcher. London, 1911.

Babcock, George D. The Taylor System in Franklin Management. New York, 1918.

Babson, Roger W. Religion and Business. New York, 1921. Baltzell, W. J. A Complete History of Music. Philadelphia, 1908. Beard, Charles A. American Government and Politics. New York,

1910.

Beard, Charles A. Readings in American Government and Politics. New York, 1910.

Beard, Charles A. American City Government; a Survey of Newer Tendencies. New York, 1912.

Beard, Charles A. An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States. New York, 1913.

Beard, Charles A. Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy. New

York, 1915.

Bergson, Henri. Laughter. New York, 1913.

Berman, Louis. The Glands Regulating Personality. New York, 1921. Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah. The Life of John Marshall.

2 vols.

2 vols.

Bos

ton, 1916.