fied. These rivalrous impulses are most pronounced toward those to whom one has an attitude of rivalry. Among children they are at first felt indiscriminately, but as they grow up, "this attitude is assumed only toward those with whom they are frequently in conflict. By the fifth year children (boys especially) are very keen in noting any favours extended to their competitors." Men and women likewise develop rivalrous attitudes to certain ones with whom they are associated, but the rivalrous disposition is by no means limited to those who are recognized as competitors.

In persons of a strong rivalrous disposition its action is not dependent on external stimuli, but shows itself in an ambition to accomplish something noticeable or extraordinary. Doubtless this has been the predominant motive in achievement. Rivalry brings out latent capacities of men and women, stimulates productive effort, discovery, invention, the projection and completion of great enterprises, advancement in art, science and letters, and brings the most capable leaders to the front. But it is never, in any of these particulars, the sole disposition involved. It is tempered and directed by others, equally necessary, which are popularly undervalued because their part is more obscure. Inordinate rivalry may suppress instead of bring out the latent capacities of men and women. It may interfere with the methodical work that is essential in productive effort, and with the free play of the intellect in discovery and invention and the advancement of art, science and letters. The leaders it brings to the front may not be the most capable; they are not if they are more intent on proving their own superiority than on disinterested service. Achievements that glorify the individual may mean little for social progress. The material and economic structures reared by superior organizers of men, money and materials are at first shaped to satisfy the rivalrous impulses of those men and are but slowly subjected to public purposes. Because achievements represent conspicuous success, and because the public is spellbound by material success, the real significance of achievements, their value for widespread development of personality is not generally considered. They are merely means to an end-the development of personality and of progressive social relationships; wherefore, we must avoid the prejudice in favour of the rivalrous disposition that has developed because of our predilection for mere achievements.

2 O'Shea, Social Development and Education, 174.

Unregulated by a rational social purpose, the tendency of rivalry is to make social behaviour extreme and ill adapted to requirements for social welfare. Rivalry may impel to the seeking of superiority in any line that has become a pronounced activity 3-in acquisition of wealth, in religious submission and humility, in sympathy and philanthropy. The action of any disposition may, therefore, be intensified and given an egoistic turn by associating it with rivalry. A rivalrous person wants to be more loved than the other members of the family; wants to be more popular than others in the community because of social qualities or philanthropy; wants to be considered the best singer or conversationalist in the exclusive circle. Thus rivalry may make even a person of pronounced sympathetic or esthetic tastes at bottom an egoist. It may be the determining disposition not only in economic and political relations but even in those more intimate and personal relations that are the natural channels for the satisfaction of the sympathetic and intellectual dispositions.

Rivalry is, however, most apt to be pronounced in connection with other egoistic dispositions. Because of the prominence in human behaviour of the acquisitive disposition, the rivalrous disposition especially seeks wealth, or position that is associated with wealth, but with behaviour different from that of the acquisitive disposition. Rivalrous behaviour is imaginative, impatient of conventional beliefs and practices that interfere with its satisfaction, impatient of regular manual work and other activities that require concentration of attention on small points; it is apt to be extravagant instead of thrifty and frugal.

While rivalry is generally for things that satisfy other impulses also, the disposition itself is immediately satisfied not by things but by social recognition of superiority. Wherefore, the rivalrous disposition seeks what will win recognition whether it has any other value or not.

What is sought is the form or token of superiority that will win social acknowledgment. The standards of superiority are, therefore, set by the group and must be unquestioningly, not intelligently, accepted. The entire process is impulsive, though great shrewdness and cleverness may be stimulated in the course of the rivalry. The social acknowledgment of superiority that is sought is an egoistic gratification. The admiration felt by others may satisfy their impulse to admire; but admiration is not sought by the

3 Thorndike, The Original Nature of Man, 98-100. ♦ Watkins, Welfare as an Economic Quantity, 17.

rivalrous person in order to satisfy others but in order to satisfy his own rivalrous disposition. The superior person finds the acknowledgment of a defeated rival especially satisfying. He is indifferent to the annoyance occasioned by the defeat. This disposition, is, therefore, contrary to the sympathetic disposition, which is moved to relieve annoyances suffered by others.

Human nature as we find it is an apparently inexplicable maze of conflicting dispositions, so that it is difficult or impossible to determine, in a particular case, whether conduct is egoistic or altruistic. An egoistic may be subordinate to an altruistic ultimate motive, or an altruistic to an egoistic, so that the essential problem, in a particular case, always is: What is the ultimate motive. For instance, a mother, when reproached for indulging a child in a way that encourages it to form a bad habit, will sometimes retort, "I know it, but it is so annoying to have him teasing and acting so." Her ultimate motive is the egoistic impulse to avoid annoyance, wherefore she yields to the impulse to satisfy the child. Conversely an egoistic impulse may serve an altruistic purpose. The essential cleavage in human motives referred to at the beginning of the chapter, between motives that seek satisfaction of self and those that seek satisfaction of others, means, therefore, ultimate motives. Man is a conscious being and is more or less conscious of a complex of motives, and is capable of duplicity as well as sincerity in his self-knowledge. For the sincere. man the essential cleavage in his nature is between the disposition ultimately to seek not so much the satisfaction of others for the moment as their satisfaction in the long run-their welfare-and the disposition ultimately to think of himself.

A sense of superiority and achievement has a marked effect on those in whom the rivalrous disposition is pronounced. Success eases the impulse for superiority and gives a serenity and complacency. Unrelieved by sympathetic and intellectual impulses, the expression may become the impassive calm of one who feels so far superior as to be indifferent to the pretentions of others. Or superiority may result in the smug, self-satisfied air of the successful but still busy person. If the falling in abeyance of the satisfied rivalrous disposition allows others to become active, superiority may result in "the graciousness of conscious power," or in a dilettante intellectual interest. But sense of superiority is seldom absolute and undisturbed. Men of a pronounced rivalrous disposition are not satisfied unless superiority is constantly recognized. Hence the disposition to dis

play evidences of it. Furthermore, the superior are solicitous for their position and suspicious of manifestations among the inferior that suggest a desire to excel, wherefore they have an impulse to display their insignia. Finally, no superiority is so great but that a greater may be achieved. Success in gaining wealth superiority allows the attention to swing to other emblems-position on an academic board, an honorary academic degree, political position, a high place in the civic activities of the city, reputation as an extensive traveller. On account of the range of possible lines of superiority, a man is never so great but that he might become a little greater. There is a limit, however, even to the most inordinate ambition, and marked success in any one line generally gives a sense of superiority that noticeably affects the attitudes and ideas.

A deep-seated sense of inferiority likewise profoundly affects the inner life of man. The inferiority complex, because it, rather than the superiority complex, characterizes the vast majority of people in whom the rivalrous disposition is pronounced, is, perhaps, more interesting than the superiority complex. Among the processes are, first, the disposition vigorously to assert superiority. Display here differs from that of him who has won superiority in that it shows the effort of the climber. Those who most insistently emphasize their evidences of superiority, who talk of their family, their possessions, their travels, who emphasize the superior correctness of their speech, thereby betray their inferiority. For, as we have seen, the superior person knows he is superior, and assumes that anybody would recognize it if he took the trouble to display it. The climbers who vigorously assert their superiority often impress others with their evidences of it and win popular recognition, but usually fail to win the assent of the rivals they are most eager to convince. The assertion of superiority results in cheap imitations of evidences of solid superiority, for instance, in veneered furniture and other cheap imitations of material things, in the superficial knowledge of literary and scientific ideas that may be gleaned from popular magazines, in the imitation of the ideas and attitudes and luxurious tastes of the wealthy. Assertion of superiority prompts also to an association with the wealthy and distinguished as closely as flattery can bring it about. Or it prompts to the bringing forward of other evidences of superiority than those socially recognized and the assertion of the superiority of these over the social evidences.

Another process of the inferiority complex is admiration for the

superior, without impulse to excel, which is the reaction toward those greatly superior. It is characteristic also of one in whom the rivalrous disposition is not pronounced as compared with other dispositions of his personality. In a timid person or a fearful class, admiration becomes servility. The inferior exaggerate their inferiority and the superiority of the superior in order to please the latter. Between this class and the vigorously self-assertive above mentioned come the great mass of people who, while not obtrusively seeking superiority, seek to avoid conspicuous inferiority. Distinct from these three classes is the critically intellectual individual who inhibits both rivalrous and servile impulses through absorption in his ideal of an all round development of personality.

For several reasons rivalry makes for conflict. First, rivalry, as an ultimate motive, tends to cause conflict because it does not recognize the annoyances of others. Second, the rivalrous disposition never is satisfied-there always is somebody a little more wealthy or a little more clever-; or is satisfied only for the moment until some rival has forged ahead and the struggle must be begun anew. The business man is satisfied with his profits only until he hears that some other business man is making more. Families are satisfied with their standard of living only until some family in their class has a new toy. Third, the tendency of rivalry is to maintain secrecy. A rival seeks to conceal from another his intent and his means of making himself superior to the other. Rivalry in athletics encourages "secret practice." Business rivalry fosters secrecy, and men who insist that business must not be a rivalry between profit-seekers but must be conducted for the public welfare call for publicity as to profits. Rivalrous scholars are secret in their work because they are solicitous about being "anticipated" in the publication of their ideas; thinkers who are more in earnest for the progress of science than for the advancement of self urge more co-operation in scientific work. Rivalrous nations are secret in their diplomacy, while the statesman who stands for friendliness instead of rivalry between nations stands for open diplomacy. The enforcement of publicity in business and diplomacy would, therefore, be an effective move against economic and international conflict. But no laws to enforce publicity can do away with the duplicity that is inevitable as long as the rivalrous disposition is essential in the relations of mankind. There is an irrepressible conflict between the processes of thinking of the intellectual disposition, which sincerely searches for truth, and those of