In

The only check sustained by the Americans was the defeat and capture of Ethan Allen, who had headed an expedition against Montreal, as reckless but not as successful as his earlier attempt against Ticonderoga. Quebec was now threatened by two forces, one under Montgomery, the other under Benedict Arnold, who had started from the mouth of the Kenebec with eleven hundred men. December their forces united before Quebec, and on the 31st they assaulted the town. The assailants were defeated, with a loss of sixty men killed and nearly four hundred taken prisoners. Among those slain was Montgomery. No braver or more highminded man fell in the whole war. In parliament the friends of America lamented his death and praised his memory, and even Lord North generously admitted that he was brave, able, and humane, and that he had undone his country by his virtues. The Americans, reinforced from the army of Washington, continued for four months to blockade Quebec, suffering greatly from small-pox and the lack of provisions. From the position of the place it was impossible for the besiegers to keep out supplies and fresh troops from England. When the garrison, strengthened by reinforcements, made a sally, the Americans retreated.

WAR IN VIRGINIA.

In Virginia war had broken out between Lord Dunmore and the assembly. Dunmore seized the powder belonging to the colony, and then, fearing the people, established himself on board a man-of

war.

The assembly dissolved. On the 9th of December the first serious engagement took place. Captain Fordyce, with one hundred and twenty men, made the attack, but was beaten. On New Year's Day, 1776, the town of Norfolk, which had refused to victual the English ships, was bombarded and laid in ashes.

In parliament the king's speech denounced "the desperate conspiracy in North America." Lord Mansfield, who supported the ministry, plainly and courageously told the House of Lords, that England must either conquer by force or give way altogether. He illustrated his view by the story of a Scotch officer in the Thirty Years' War, who, pointing to the enemy, said to his men, "See you those lads? kill them, or they will kill you." The results of the session showed that the government would be con

tent with nothing less than the total submission of the colonists.

A still greater loss to the cause of America was the retirement of Chatham, who was withheld by illness from taking any part in public affairs. Yet he showed what he thought of the ministerial policy, by ordering his son, who was aide-de-camp to General Carleton, to throw up his appointment, rather than serve against the Americans. The hiring of German troops to serve in America completely enraged the colonists.

In spite of all the difficulties which surrounded him, the Americans grumbled at Washington for not striking some decisive blow, and in December, 1775, congress sent him a resolution, authorizing him "to attack Boston in any manner that he might deem expedient." On the night of the 4th of March he resolved to make an attempt. After nightfall a heavy cannonade began from the American lines, and was kept up on both sides till morning. In the meantime Washington sent a force to occupy Dorchester heights, ground which commanded Boston harbor. The Americans were skilful at throwing up earth-works, and by daybreak they were safely entrenched. The British prepared to dislodge them, but were prevented by a storm; and before they could renew the attempt, the earthworks had been so strengthened that an attack was hopeless. It was impossible to hold the town while the Americans were in possession of this point. Accordingly on the 17th of March the troops embarked, and Washington entered Boston.

WAR IN NORTH CAROLINA.

In March, hostilities broke out in North Carolina. The assembly accused Martin, the governor, of exciting an insurrection among the negroes, declared him a public enemy, and forbade any one to communicate with him. He thereupon raised the royal standard and collected a force, consisting mainly of emigrants from the Scotch Highlands. An engagement followed, in which the governor's forces were defeated, with the loss of many prisoners and much property, including, it is said, fifteen thousand pounds in gold. This success was of great importance to the colonists. By it North Carolina, which had been looked upon as one of the weakest of the colonies, had shown that it could defend itself.

FORMATION OF INDEPENDENT STATE GOV-
ERNMENTS.

In the summer of 1776 congress took the important step of declaring the colonies independent states. The feeling in favor of this measure had been gradually gaining strength. Many thought that the failure of the Canada expedition was partly due to the nation not having thrown itself zealously and heartily into the war, and that they would not do this, until independence had been declared. Congress did acts which implied independence long before it pronounced the word. In October, 1775, New Hampshire, through its delegates, petitioned congress to be allowed to set up a government of its own framing. Congress, however, did not answer this request at once, hoping that reconciliation. might still be possible. But the king's speech in the autumn of 1775, and the rejection of the petition presented by Penn, convinced the Americans that there was no hope of the king or the ministry assenting. Accordingly, congress assented to the proposal of New Hampshire, and at the same time advised South Carolina and Virginia to form independent governments. New Hampshire, while it formed a government for itself, yet declared its allegiance to Great Britain. Virginia showed a more defiant spirit. In January, the convention of that colony passed a motion, instructing its delegates to recommend congress to open the ports of America to all nations. In January, Massachusetts virtually instructed its delegates for independence; in April North Carolina voted an explicit sanction. In May South Carolina organized a complete government for herself; and Rhode Island, by an act of her legislature, discharged her citizens from all allegiance to the king.

Those who supported a thorough-going policy of resistance felt that it would not be enough for the states separately to declare themselves independent. The whole body of colonies must unite for that pur

.pose.

As Franklin said, "We must all hang together, unless we would all hang separately." In January of 1776 a scheme for confederation, drawn up by Franklin, was laid before congress, but Dickinson, Franklin's colleague, opposed it strongly, and it was thrown out. Nevertheless congress about

this time took steps which showed that it no longer acknowledged the authority of Great Britain. After a long deliberation, the American ports were thrown. open to the world, whereby the English navigation laws were set at naught. Early in June, Lee, of Virginia, proposed that congress should declare the colonies independent. He was seconded by John Adams.

A committee of five, including Adams and Franklin, was appointed to draft a Declaration. The substance was mainly supplied by Adams, but the form of words was due to Thomas Jefferson. He was a young Virginian, already known as a brilliant writer and a strong opponent to the authority of Great Britain. He was extreme in his views, and often hot-headed and intemperate in his expression of them. The Declaration of Independence, as it originally came from his pen, contained many expressions which were afterwards softened down by his colleagues.

On the 1st of July the general question, whether the colonies should be independent, was laid before congress. Each colony had a single vote, decided by the majority of the delegates from that colony. Nine of the thirteen colonies were in favor of independence. South Carolina and Pennsylvania were at first opposed to the Declaration, the former unanimously, the latter four to three. Delaware was equally divided, and so stood neutral. The New York delegates favored independence, but not having been formally elected, could not vote. On the first day of the discussion Dickinson vigorously opposed the motion; but the next day he and a colleague stayed away, and thus the vote of Pennsylvania was altered. The arrival of another delegate changed the vote of Delaware, and South Carolina, rather than stand alone, withdrew its opposition. New York alone was unable to vote, and on the 2d of July, by the decision of twelve colonies, it was resolved "That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be. free and independent states, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved." On the 4th of July, the Declaration of Independence was laid before congress, and was formally adopted.