(4.) The Malay (Australian), with smooth or slightly curly black hair, and dark brown, more or less dusky skin, as a species of transition from the Caucasian to the Ethiopian or Negro race. To this variety belong the inhabitants of New Holland and the islands of the Pacific Ocean.

(5.) The American race, with copper colored skin, and lank, coarse hair, which comprises the still remaining aborigines of America, the Mexicans, Peruvians, etc., and forms the transition from the Caucasian to the Mongolian race.

The different languages of the world have been estimated at 2,000. To the Caucasian race belong the three following groups of languages. (a) The Indo-Germanic (Indo-European and Aryan), including the Indian, Persian, and European tongues, with the exception of the Hungarian, Baskish, Finlandish, and Esthonian. (b) The Semitic group of languages spoken by Semitic nations, Abyssinians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians. (c) North African group, comprising the ancient Egyptian, Koptic, and most of the languages of the ancient inhabitants of North Africa.

The principal group of languages spread through North-eastern Asia and Europe, and belonging to the Caucasian, as well as the Mongolian tribes, is the Finnish Tartar and Turanian group, spoken by the countless tribes of Finlanders (with whom may be reckoned the Magyar in Hungary, as well as the inhabitants of Esthonia and Livonia), Tartars (including the Osmanli Turks, Kirghiz, Baschkirs), and many Mongolian nations (the Tungusi, Kamtschadales, and others).

In the south-east of Asia, the Chinese Further | Indian group, with monosyllabic words without inflection, peculiar to the Mongolian nations, prevails in China, Further Thibet, and other places; and in Japan and the east Asiatic Archipelago, we have the Japanese Kurile group of tongues.

The languages spoken on the islands of the Pacific are reckoned to belong to the Malay-Polynesian group. The languages and dialects of the coppercolored race, estimated at about five hundred, can be classed under the name of the American.

Men chose different occupations and manners of living, according to the diversities of their places of residence. The inhabitants of steppes and deserts, interspersed only here and there with fruitful pasture grounds, chose the life of shepherds,

and roved as wandering tribes from place to place, with their tents and herds. These are called nomads (wanderers), and their principal occupation is the herding of cattle. Those who settled upon favorably situated parts of the sea-coast soon discovered, with increasing population and development, the advantages of their position. They practiced navigation and commerce, and sought after wealth and comfort, and, in furtherance of these objects, were incited to lay out towns and erect elegant dwelling houses; whilst the inhabitants of inhospitable shores supported a joyless existence by means of fisheries. Those who lived on plains, devoted themselves to agriculture and the arts of peace; whilst the rude and hardy mountaineer gave himself up to the chase, and, urged on by a violent impulse for freedom, sought his delight in wars and battles.

By the taming of wild cattle, man at an early period procured for himself domesticated animals. A powerful factor in the civilization of the human race was commerce, and the intercourse among different nations that sprang out of it. Those who lived on fruitful plains, or on the borders of suitable rivers, carried on an inland trade; the dwellers on the shores, a coasting trade. At first, man exchanged one article for another (barter), and it was not till a later period that it occurred to them to fix a certain value upon the precious metals, and to employ coined money as an artificial and more convenient means of exchange.

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT, ETC.

With the process of time nations were divided into the civilized and uncivilized, according as the development of their intellectual powers were furthered by talents and commerce, or cramped by dulness and isolation. Uncivilized nations are either wild hordes, under the command of a chief who possesses uncontrolled power over life and death, or wandering nomadic tribes, guided by a leader, who, as father of the family, exercises the functions of prince, judge, and high priest. These nomadic races, with their patriarchal government, now the wild hordes that dwell in the unknown deserts of Africa, in the steppes and lofty mountain ranges of Asia, or in the primeval forests of America, do not find any place in history.

Seventh period: From Columbus to the peace of Westphalia and the establishment of the new European system of States. From 1492 to 1648 (156 years).

Eighth period: From the peace of Westphalia to the French Revolution. From 1648 to 1789 (141 years).

Ninth period: From the commencement of the French Revolution to the present time.

The ages of the world, as well as their periods, diminish as they approach us, and in later times the history of the world becomes chiefly a European history.

Previous to the 5th century B. C. there are but few dates that can be fixed with tolerable certainty; that is to say, no uninterrupted series of dates can be accurately and positively assigned to events which are known to have occurred. In the remotest,ages all dates are uncertain and all authorities, more or less, out of reckoning. There are, however, reasonably grounded theories that relate to the origin and age of the human race, and the condition of man in pre-historic times. Much important service is rendered in such inquiries by that branch of geology which deals exclusively with investigations into the nature of the crust of the earth, thus affording us access to the secrets that for countless ages have lain concealed within its bosom. The different strata of the earth's crust are, so to speak, leaves in the genealogical history of nature inscribed by the Creator Himself, and are, therefore, among the most intelligible and reliable revelations that we possess. The formation of the earth's crust gives us, however, no information as to the period when men first began to understand each other in articulate speech, though it has preserved with its different strata the earliest products of human industry, together with the remains of gigantic species of animals that have long disappeared from the surface of the earth. The fashioning hand of man can scarcely be recognized in these weapons and tools of stone, mingled with all kinds of utensils made of bone or horn; but in later times the specimens begin to exhibit an improved style of form and workmanship.

In different parts of Denmark, exist peat moors, varying in depth from three to ten yards. In the lowest stratum of these turf-beds, the remains of

pine branches are often found, and among them weapons of stone which already exhibit a certain refinement and ingenuity of design. In the next stratum immense oak forests lie buried, containing swords and shields of bronze, hidden away among the massive branches; while the upper stratum preserves specimens of iron weapons found among the remains of beach-woods, which have existed in Denmark from Cæsar's time, over 1,900 years ago, to the present day, though all traces of the pine and oak forests have entirely disappeared.

As we constantly meet with analogies in nature, we may consequently assume that in proportion as she advanced in her process of improvement in different parts of the earth, and at different periods, human beings were to be found who differed from each other much the same as plants of one and the same species in different parts of the earth, while preserving their similarity of structure, and other characteristics. vary infinitely in color, size, etc. Assuming the number of races to be three, they

are

(1.) The Caucasian race, destined for freedom and mastery, to which belong the nations speaking Indo-Germanic languages; viz., the Europeans (with the exception of the Lapps and Finns), the inhabitants of Western Asia, Indians, and North Africans, and the people who have emigrated from Europe to America; this on account of its capacity for civilization forms the most important subject of history. It is distinguished by symmetry of limb, and beauty of bodily form and face, and embraces the most manifold transitions, from the white skin of the blonde North European, to the dusky, blackhaired Southerner and Hindoo.

(2.) The African Negro race, transplanted by the slave trade to America and the West Indies, with more or less black, curly, woolly hair, and prominent occiput.

(3.) The Mongolian race, in Eastern Asia, and in the northern polar regions of the Old and the New Worlds (Mongolians, Huns, Upper Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Calmucks, Finns, Lapps, Esquimaux, and others), with smooth black hair, flat nose, narrow, widely separated eyes, flat occiput, and a skin varying from yellow to light brown.

Besides these three races, principally appertaining to the ancient history of the earth, two subordinate races are taken into account, namely:

(4.) The Malay (Australian), with smooth or slightly curly black hair, and dark brown, more or less dusky skin, as a species of transition from the Caucasian to the Ethiopian or Negro race. To this variety belong the inhabitants of New Holland and the islands of the Pacific Ocean.

(5.) The American race, with copper colored skin, and lank, coarse hair, which comprises the still remaining aborigines of America, the Mexicans, Peruvians, etc., and forms the transition from the Caucasian to the Mongolian race.

The different languages of the world have been estimated at 2,000. To the Caucasian race belong the three following groups of languages. (a) The Indo-Germanic (Indo-European and Aryan), including the Indian, Persian, and European tongues, with the exception of the Hungarian, Baskish, Finlandish, and Esthonian. (b) The Semitic group of languages spoken by Semitic nations, Abyssinians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians. (c) North African group, comprising the ancient Egyptian, Koptic, and most of the languages of the ancient inhabitants of North Africa.

The principal group of languages spread through North-eastern Asia and Europe, and belonging to the Caucasian, as well as the Mongolian tribes, is the Finnish Tartar and Turanian group, spoken by the countless tribes of Finlanders (with whom may be reckoned the Magyar in Hungary, as well as the inhabitants of Esthonia and Livonia), Tartars (including the Osmanli Turks, Kirghiz, Baschkirs), and many Mongolian nations (the Tungusi, Kamtschadales, and others).

In the south-east of Asia, the Chinese FurtherIndian group, with monosyllabic words without inflection, peculiar to the Mongolian nations, prevails in China, Further Thibet, and other places; and in Japan and the east Asiatic Archipelago, we have the Japanese Kurile group of tongues.

The languages spoken on the islands of the Pacific are reckoned to belong to the Malay-Polynesian group. The languages and dialects of the coppercolored race, estimated at about five hundred, can be classed under the name of the American.

Men chose different occupations and manners of living, according to the diversities of their places of residence. The inhabitants of steppes and deserts, interspersed only here and there with fruitful pasture grounds, chose the life of shepherds,

and roved as wandering tribes from place to place, with their tents and herds. These are called nomads (wanderers), and their principal occupation is the herding of cattle. Those who settled upon. favorably situated parts of the sea-coast soon discovered, with increasing population and development, the advantages of their position. They practiced navigation and commerce, and sought after wealth and comfort, and, in furtherance of these objects, were incited to lay out towns and erect elegant dwelling houses; whilst the inhabitants of inhospitable shores supported a joyless existence by means of fisheries. Those who lived on plains, devoted themselves to agriculture and the arts of peace; whilst the rude and hardy mountaineer gave himself up to the chase, and, urged on by a violent impulse for freedom, sought his delight in wars and battles.

By the taming of wild cattle, man at an early period procured for himself domesticated animals. A powerful factor in the civilization of the human race was commerce, and the intercourse among different nations that sprang out of it. Those who lived on fruitful plains, or on the borders of suitable rivers, carried on an inland trade; the dwellers on the shores, a coasting trade. At first, man exchanged one article for another (barter), and it was not till a later period that it occurred to them to fix a certain value upon the precious metals, and to employ coined money as an artificial and more convenient means of exchange.

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT, ETC.

With the process of time nations were divided into the civilized and uncivilized, according as the development of their intellectual powers were furthered by talents and commerce, or cramped by dulness and isolation. Uncivilized nations are either wild hordes, under the command of a chief who possesses uncontrolled power over life and death, or wandering nomadic tribes, guided by a leader, who, as father of the family, exercises the functions of prince, judge, and high priest. These nomadic races, with their patriarchal government, now the wild hordes that dwell in the unknown deserts of Africa, in the steppes and lofty mountain ranges of Asia, or in the primeval forests of America, do not find any place in history.

States became divided into Republics and Monarchies, according to their different methods of rule. A State is called a Monarchy when a single person stands at the head and manages its affairs. This personage is styled Emperor, or King, or Duke, or Prince, according to the extent of his territory. The term Free State, or Republic, is given to that form of government in which the supreme power is placed in the hands of an elective body composed of numerous members. The most ancient states were simple and uniform in their form of government, but were trammelled with those restrictions to freedom known as castes. By this arrangement hard and fast distinctions were drawn between men according to their calling-distinctions which were strictly and sacredly preserved from generation to generation, no mingling of the distinct classes, or transition from one to another, being permitted. The priests constituted the first caste; the soldiers the second. These two castes divided the government between them. The third caste comprehended the cultivators of the soil; the fourth, the artisans. "Caste" was preserved for the longest time, and greatest distinctness, in India and Egypt. Shepherds stood as the lowest or most despised caste.

RELIGION OF THE HEATHEN WORLD. The uncultivated tribes of Africa and Central Asia clothed their primitive conceptions of

a deity in rude shapes, and made their fetishes of inanimate objects, or representations of animals. The people of Western Asia, where the sun, moon, and stars shone forth with their greatest splendor, established the worship of the stars (Sabæism), and endeavored either to grasp philosophically the idea of the Divine Being, whose presence they recognized in all visible things, and whom they represented as being the life in nature, that which truly and really existed in all natural things (Pantheism), or endeavored to mold their belief in an artistic form by deifying all nature, representing the gods as a higher kind of man, more richly endowed and more perfect than human beings (Polytheism). The faith in a single divinity was preserved among the Jewish people alone, in the worship of their hereditary God, Jehovah. The Greeks and Romans instituted joyous festivals to their gods, in which the fruits that were presented, and the animals that were slain, were socially consumed; whilst savage tribes slaughtered human beings upon their altars, for the purpose of appeasing by blood the wrath of hostile powers; for such they considered their divinities to be. The tribes of Phoenicia and Syria placed their own children in the arms of a red-hot idol, Moloch.