structed of granite. Hungary possesses a very considerable mineral wealth. There are great deposits of coal, iron, and salt; lead, copper, silver, and gold are found in various localities, the last mentioned chiefly along the rivers of Transylvania. Antimony, cobalt, nickel, mercury, and zinc also occur, and among the nonmetallic minerals there are precious stones, kaolin, marble, and porphyry. The Hungarian opal, found in the trachyte beds near Vörösvágás, is particularly worthy of mention. It is only

within recent times that the wealth of coal and iron has begun to be exploited on a large scale. The deposits of salt in the County of Marmaros, in the eastern Carpathians, which are worked by the state, are practically inexhaustible. There are hundreds of mineral springs scattered throughout Hungary. Among the most celebrated are those at Tátra-Füred (Schmeks), in the northern Carpathians, Mehádia (Baths of Hercules), near Orsova and the Iron Gate of the Danube, and Füred, on Lake Balaton, and Harkány, near Fünfkirchen (Pécs).

The

Agriculture, Live Stock, Forests, etc. Hungary is preeminently an agricultural country, 68 per cent of the total population being included in the agricultural class. The country made marked progress, both in the extent of the industry and in respect to agricultural methods, during the last three decades. A large majority of the cultivators of the soil are independent landowners. There are, however, a great many large estates belonging to the state and to members of the nobility, upon which the prevailing system of agriculture is very similar to that in vogue upon the large English estates. average size of these 3977 large holdings is 4630 acres, or 74 square miles. The smallest holdings, numbering 1,459,893, average somewhat under 22 acres. The improvement in agriculture is largely indebted to the activity of agricultural societies. The natural conditions are generally favorable to the industry, the great fertility of the soil being especially a marked feature of the Hungarian plain. In some respects this plain is comparable to the Western prairies of the United States; but, like that region, it is subject to an uncertain rainfall, and it contains considerable stretches of sandy, arid land as well as marshy tracts, which have never been brought under cultivation. While the products of the country are characterized by their great variety, Hungary is best known for its production of wheat, live stock (including horses), and wine, the first two entering the European markets in competition with American products. The area devoted to wheat increased from a little less than 6,500,000 acres (on an average) during the period 1881 to 1885 to 9,153,688 acres in 1911, but decreased to 8,771,200 acres in 1913 and is now about equal to the combined acreage of rye, barley, and oats, which are about on a level with each other in importance. The increase in the area devoted to wheat was principally in the sandy and previously uncultivated tracts of central and south Hungary. Increased attention is also being given to corn, 7,189,219 acres having been devoted to its cultivation in 1911 and 7,212,404 acres in 1913. A large variety of root crops are grown, of which the potato leads in importance, followed by beets, much less than half of the latter crop being sugar beets. In 1913 nearly 450,000 acres were planted with sugar beets. The yield of the principal agricultural staples will be found in the table

under AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Vine culture is extensively carried on in the hilly districts, the Hungarian wines being the most excellent known to the market. The most famous Hungarian wines are those that bear the name of Tokay. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the phylloxera devastated the Hungarian vineyards, and their area greatly decreased. From an average of 367,360 hectares (907,763 acres) in the period 1881 to 1885 it decreased to 245,405 hectares (606,407 acres) in 1895, but had increased again in 1911 to 357,867 hectares (884,305 acres). Hungary has an extraordinary wealth of temperate-zone fruits. The grapes are unsurpassed in flavor, and the plums and watermelons are of an excellent quality. Apples, pears, cherries, etc., are very extensively raised, and some semitropical fruits are cultivated in the south. Nuts are found in great variety. There is a considerable production of tobacco, but this is under the monopoly of the crown.

The Hungarian horse, though not large, is in great demand in the European market, because of its endurance and swiftness. The superiority of the breed is due to the care of the government, which selects and owns most of the stallions kept in the country. The fondness of the Hungarian for horses is well expressed in the saying, "The Magyar was created on a horse." The number of horses in 1911 was 2,351,481. In the same year there were 7,319,121 head of cattle, 8,548,204 sheep, 7,580,446 hogs, and 426,981 goats. As compared with the figures of the 1895 census, there was a decided increase in all varieties of live stock. In some sections buffaloes are used in considerable numbers in tillage. The Hungarian oxen are characterized by the extraordinary spread of their horns. The principal forest area is in the Carpathian Mountains and consists of forests of beech, oak, and pine. The numerous rivers of the country are rich in fish, and thus contribute an important item to the food supply of the people.

Manufactures. Since no duties can be collected upon the imports from Austria, the Hungarian manufacturing industries must compete with the long-established and highly developed industries of the sister monarchy; but in spite of this much progress has been recently made. The government has sought to encourage industries by favorable legislation, such as exemption from taxation. Most of the industries are being thoroughly modernized-concentrated under large plants, with highly improved machinery. Those which draw their supplies from the abundant agricultural products of the country-flour milling, brewing and distilling, sugar and tobacco manufactures, etc.-have taken first rank in importance. Iron products, clothing, and many less important items are also included among the manufactures. Many of the large establishments are centred in Budapest.

Transportation and Commerce. In respect to railway mileage Hungary will compare favorably with other European countries. Including Croatia and Slavonia, there were, in 1911, 13,041 miles of railway lines, 5048 miles of which were owned by the state, while 5902 miles of the remainder were operated by the state. Hungary has the distinction of having first applied the "zone-tariff" system to its railroads. The Danube and its tributaries afford extensive facilities for water transportation. The navigation of some of the rivers, notably the Theiss, has been greatly improved through the shortening of the course

by means of numerous cuts. In 1911 the country had 2176 miles of rivers and canals navigable by steamers. In 45 years (1867-1911, inclusive) the government expended more than $60,000,000 on the maintenance and improvement of the waterways. The limited coast line tends to restrict the country's participation in the seagoing trade. The principal port, however, Fiume, is rapidly growing in importance, and a subvention is granted to Hungarian vessels registering in this port, the number of which has rapidly increased. About 70 per cent of the imports are from Austria, which takes about the same proportion of the exports. This arises from the fact that the two countries are mutually complementary in respect to their products, and that trade between them is free, whereas there is a tariff barrier to the trade with other countries. Grain, cattle, and other farm products pass from Hungary to Austria in return for manufactured products, principally textiles. Germany occupies a second place in the trade with Hungary. In 1913 the imports were valued at $406,400,000 and the exports at $375,500,000.

Government. The Emperor of Austria is King of Hungary. The foreign, military, and naval affairs of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy are conducted jointly by Austria (Cisleithania) and Hungary (Transleithania) through the medium of common ministries (including a ministry for the common finances) and the so-called delegations representing the separate halves of the monarchy. The Crownland of Croatia-Slavonia enjoys autonomy in local affairs, having its own Diet and its own ban or governor. It is, however, also represented in the Hungarian Diet. Since 1867 Transylvania has been an integral part of Hungary. In the national Hungarian Parliament the Magyar interests are predominant, and the Magyar language is official throughout Hungary proper, being obligatory in schools, etc. Croatia and Slavonia are allowed the official use of their native language. A full exposition of the government and the educational system, and a statement of finances, will be found in the article AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Defense. For army, see under AUSTRIAHUNGARY, and for navy, under Austria-Hungary in article NAVIES.

Population. The population of the Lands of the Hungarian Crown in 1910 was 20,886,487, or 166 per square mile. This was somewhat more than two-fifths of the population of the AustroHungarian monarchy, exclusive of Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are a large number of racial elements represented in Hungary, and the bitterness of racial feeling is the occasion of much political and social friction. The Magyar-speaking population numbers 10,050,000, but this figure includes a large number of persons not of Magyar blood. The Rumans (Wallachs), mostly in Transylvania, number 2,949,000, and the southern Slavs (Croats and Serbs) about 2,940,000. The northern Slavs number 2,441,000, about four-fifths of them being Slovaks, and the remainder mainly Ruthenians. Hungary has a German-speaking population of 2,037,000. The Germans constitute an important element in many of the cities, and in Transylvania there is a German-speaking district known as the "Saxon Land." There are over 932,000 inhabitants of Jewish blood, most of whom are included in the Magyar-speaking population. Next to Rumania, Hungary contains a larger number of gypsies than any other European country. They form a

picturesque element in the population, and their music is quite a feature in the charms of rural life in Hungary. There are a number of Armenians and Bulgarians in the kingdom. The population of Transylvania consists mostly of Rumans, and the Magyar element is but feebly represented in Croatia and Slavonia. The Magyars are, as a rule, the landowners of the country. Hungary is unique among progressive European countries in the extent to which the different races still retain their own peculiar and longestablished costumes. The costume of an Hungarian peasant is made of a linen shirt with long sleeves, reaching to the knee; a bodice ornamented with metal buttons or cords; wide linen trousers or tight-fitting ones, made of black or blue cloth, and stuck into leather boots ornamented with cords; a black round hat with feathers, or a black fur cap for headdress, and a cloak made of close, coarse cloth and trimmed with fur, cords, etc., or a wide sleeveless sheepskin coat, worn also to some extent in summer. The costume of the Hungarian peasant woman is also very picturesque and is made usually of lighter materials. The population is very largely centred in villages, some of which contain several thousand inhabitants, but there are a few large towns. Budapest in 1910 had a population of 880,371, showing a gain of 20 per cent in the last decade. Szegedin, with a population in 1910 of 118,328, is the only other town containing over 100,000 inhabitants. Cities having between this and 50,000 inhabitants in the order of size, are: Szabadka (Maria-Theresiopel), Debreczin, Agram (Zágráb), the capital of Croatia and Slavonia, Pressburg (Pozsony), Temesvár, Kecskemét, Grosswardein (NagyVárad), Arad, Hódmezö-Vásárhely, Klausenburg (Kolozsvár), Ujpest, and Miskolcz. Other wellknown towns are: Kronstadt and Hermannstadt in Transylvania; Fiume, Kaschau, Oedenburg, Stuhlweissenburg, Raab, Eszék, and Gran (Esztergom), the seat of the Roman Catholic Primate of Hungary. The population of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1910, according to religions, was as follows: Roman Catholics, 10,888,000; Orthodox Greeks, 2,987,000; Calvinists, 2,621,000; Lutherans, 1,340,000; United Greeks and Roman Catholic Armenians, 2,025,500; Israelites, 932,000; Unitarians, 74,300.

History. The Hungarians-or, as they call themselves, the Magyars-have been settled in their present abode somewhat more than 1000 years. They constitute a branch of the FinnoUgric race (Ural-Altaic family), their nearest kin being the Finns. (See HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE.) They figure in the old writers as Ugri, Wengri, Ungri, Ungari, Hungari. They first entered the lands now known as Hungary under the leadership of the legendary Arpád, who by 906 is said to have conquered the Slavic inhabitants. The invaders were a barbarous horde, who for more than half a century were the terror of the nations to the west and the south. They broke up the Moravian realm, made incursions into Germany and Italy, everywhere pillaging, burning, and slaughtering, and awakening superstitious terrors in the minds of the inhabitants, and carrying their devastations far and wide. At last the German kings succeeded in putting an end to their onslaughts. They were defeated in 933 by Henry the Fowler on the Unstrut, and Otho the Great vanquished them on the Lech in 955. Forced to accommodate themselves to a settled existence, and in possession of a fruitful