AWAII, BLUE Laws of. See BLUE LAWS.

H

HAWAIIAN

LANDS,

(hä-wi'an) ISor HAWAII, hä-wi'ê (formerly SANDWICH ISLANDS; politically, the TERRITORY OF HAWAII). A chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean, belonging to the United States, forming geographically and ethnologically the extreme northeastern group of Polynesia. They are situated between latitudes 18° 54′ and 22° 15′ N., and between longitudes 154° 50′ and 160° 30′ W., about 2200 miles southwest of San Francisco, and 4893 miles from Hongkong. The chain consists of eight inhabited and several small uninhabited islands, arranged nearly all in single file extending for about 400 miles from southeast to northwest. The inhabited islands with their areas are, beginning at the southeast: Hawaii, 4015 square miles; Maui, 728; Kahulaui, 69; Molokai, 261; Lanai, 135; Oahu, 600; Kauai, 544; and Niihau, 97. Total area, 6449 square miles.

Topography and Geology. The islands are of purely volcanic origin, being really the summits of enormous volcanic cones raised from the bottom of the ocean, which falls rapidly to a depth of 18,000 feet not far from the shores. The islands are all mountainous, but only one, Hawaii, is actively volcanic, having two of the largest craters in the world, Mauna Loa and Kilauea (qq.v.). Hawaii is the most recent in order of formation; it is much less eroded than the others, and though it contains the highest peak of the group-Mauna Kea (q.v.), 13,805 feet-its elevations are all rounded and easily ascended. The other islands, especially Kauai, which is considered the oldest, are deeply eroded into picturesque crags and deep ravines and gorges. The coasts are to a large extent steep and rocky, consisting in some places of precipices 100 to 500 feet high and extending for several miles. There are some sandy beaches, however, and in many places the coasts are lined with coral reefs; between the mountains and the coasts extend fertile plains and valleys, which are the scene of agricultural activity.

Climate and Hydrography. The climate is in general characterized by a remarkable equability of temperature; it is never too warm and never cold, except on the mountain summits, and even within the narrow limits there are no sudden changes. This is due to the fact that there are neither large ice fields nor hot con

tinental deserts within thousands of miles, and the winds which reach the islands have to pass over a broad expanse of water of a uniform and moderately warm temperature. The average temperatures of the lowlands of Hawaii are 70° F. for January and 78° F. for July, and the extreme maximum and minimum temperatures recorded are, respectively, 89° F. and 54° F. On the mountain peaks, of course, frosts occur, and snow sometimes remains throughout the year. The mean temperature is about 10 degrees cooler than in any other land in the same latitude. The winds show the same equability; the prevailing winds for 10 months in the year are the northeast trades. Alternate diurnal land and sea breezes occur, especially on the southwest coasts and around Hilo Bay on the northeast coast of Hawaii; warm southwest gales are also common in winter. Storms are rare, and hurricanes unknown. With respect to humidity and rainfall, however, the climate is extremely varied, each narrow locality having its own peculiar climate, depending on its position with regard to the winds and mountains. Most of the rain is brought by the northeast trade winds and, owing to the great elevation of the islands, it is almost all precipitated on the northeast sides, which have accordingly the most varied vegetation, while the leeward or southwest sides are much drier and, especially in Hawaii Island, almost arid. Just above Hilo Bay, where the cold winds from the mountains meet the warm and moist trade winds, there is an annual rainfall of 100 to 200, and even 250, inches, one of the heaviest in the world; but at Honolulu the rainfall is only about 32 inches a year. Though the sky is as a rule clear and sunny when it is not actually raining, the humidity is considerable, turning to almost oppressive sultriness during the period of winter southwest winds. In general, the climate is very healthful and agreeable to Europeans, but is not ideal for cases of pulmonary tuberculosis.

The rivers of Hawaii are nearly all small mountain torrents, and, as might be foreseen from the foregoing, they are largely confined to the north and east sides of the island.

Flora and Fauna. The indigenous flora and fauna of Hawaii are interesting, as they partake of the characters both of the Asiatic and Australian, as well as of the American, flora. There are about 130 species of ferns and 900 species of flowering plants, of which 600 are peculiar to the

islands. Some of the characteristic plants are a peculiar Pandanus, or screw pine, several tree ferns, and among the forest trees the Koa (Acacia koa). Forests still cover large areas of the uplands, but have greatly decreased. Where vegetation is found it generally grows luxuriantly, but large areas, especially in Hawaii, are covered with naked lava fields.

There are very few indigenous mammals in Hawaii, and no reptiles, except a single species of lizard. The birds are interesting, including many peculiar and highly specialized species, notably in the family Drepanididæ, which differ characteristically from those of the rest of Polynesia. The land mollusks have also reached a remarkable development, almost every valley having its own peculiar species, some of which are allied to those of Mexico and California.

Agriculture. Of the twenty islands composing the Hawaiian group, only eight-Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Niihau, and Kahulaui-are inhabited. The most important islands-Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu-contain large areas of fertile land. The climatic conditions on these three islands are favorable for agricultural activity. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century land was held by feudal tenure. In 1848, however, a division was made by which about one-third of the inhabited area was set apart for the crown, another third for the government, and the remaining third for the powerful chiefs. The common people were given titles for the house lots which they held and for small pieces of land which they cultivated for themselves. The chiefs gradually lost possession of the land awarded to them and it fell to a large extent into the hands of foreigners. When, in 1893, the monarchy ceased to exist, the lands belonging to the crown were declared to be public lands, and, with other government lands, became the property of the United States government when the islands were annexed in 1898. In 1910 Congress passed measures amending the organic act of the Territory and providing for the consolidation of the administration of public lands in one department. It also made provision for the transfer of land for forestry or other public purposes.

The chief industries of the islands are related to agriculture, but conditions have been 'such, owing to lack of knowledge of practical agriculture, distance from the world's markets, tariffs, and other causes, that only a few products have been produced on a sufficient scale to export in considerable quantities. In recent years, however, scientific study has been made by the United States Department of Agriculture, and marked progress in the knowledge of possible crops and methods of cultivation has resulted. This is especially true of the sugar industry, in which scientific cultivation has resulted in enormous crops.

Between 1900 and 1910 the population of the islands increased by 37,908, or 24.6 per cent, while the number of farms increased by 2047, or 90.1 per cent. The total number of farms in 1910 was 4320, while in 1900 there were 2273. Out of an approximate area which includes both land and water area of 4,127,360 acres, there were in farms, in 1910, 2,590,600 acres, compared with 2,609,613 acres in 1900-a decrease in acreage in the decade of 19,013. improved land in farms, however, increased from 294,545 in 1900 to 305,053 acres in 1910. The average acres per farm decreased from 1148.1 in

The

1900 to 599.7 in 1910, and the average improved acres per farm decreased from 129.6 in 1900 to 70.6 in 1910. The value of farm property, including land, buildings, implements and machinery, domestic animals, poultry and bees, increased from $74,084,988 in 1900 to $96,363,229 in 1910. The average value of land per acre was $30.16 in 1910, compared with $21.64 in 1900. In 1910 87.7 per cent of all the farms were under 50 acres in size.

Of the 4320 farms in 1910, 753 were operated by white farmers, 463 by Hawaiian, 2138 by Japanese, 876 by Chinese, 83 by other Asiatics, and 7 by negroes. The white farmers showed

an increase in the decade of 47.9 per cent, while Hawaiian farmers decreased. The number of Japanese farmers increased 302.6 per cent in the decade. In 1910, 834 farmers out of a total of 4320 owned farms; 129 were part owners; 214 were share tenants; 2894 were cash tenants; and 249 were managers. The proportion of owners and part owners showed a great falling off in the decade 1900-10, the former being in 1910 less than two-thirds and the latter less than one-half of the number shown in 1900.

The total value of crops in the islands in 1909 was $28,536,000. Of this total, over ninetenths was contributed by sugar cane. The only other crop with a value of product of over $1,000,000 was rice; the fruits and nuts, vegetables, and the coffee produced in 1909 were each valued at over $200,000. No other crop had a value amounting to $100,000. The acreage of sugar cane in 1909 was 186,230 and the number of farms growing sugar cane was 1028, compared with 184 in 1899. The production of cane in 1909 was 4,240,000 tons, compared with 2,239,000 in 1899. The value of the sugar crop was $26,306,000, compared with $18,763,000 in 1899. The production and value of sugar since 1909 has been as follows: 1910, 518,127 short tons; 1911, 566,821 short tons; 1912, 595,258 short tons; 1913, 543,220 short tons, and this was valued at about $37,000,000. The yield of cane sugar per acre is the greatest in the world. About half the acreage planted to cane is irrigated. The development of the sugar industry on a large scale dates from 1875, when the Reciprocity Treaty, passed in that year, established practically free trade between the islands and the United States. The greater number of sugar farms are on the islands of Hawaii, Oahu, Maui, and Kauai, at the bases of mountains. Rice is the second crop in value. It is consumed chiefly on the islands and is raised on the lowlands, chiefly by Chinese, in terraces flooded with water. There is little additional land available for this crop, but there is much room for improvement in the method of cultivation. Some improvements have been made chiefly as the result of the work of the Federal experiment station. The acreage planted to rice in 1909 was 9425 and the amount produced was 41,827,900 pounds, valued at $1,068,293. The yield is about 21⁄2 tons per acre per annum (two crops). A small quantity of rice is exported to the United States. This in 1913 amounted to 3,529,667 pounds, valued at $185,938.

The growing of coffee was at one time carried on to a large extent in the islands. Its cultivation began as early as 1817 and was at one time conducted largely by Americans. Owing to competition with other countries and the consequent lowering of prices, coffee growing has now fallen largely into the hands of the Japanese. The out