statute-book; for in the revised body of laws, made in the year 1784, this article occurs,-"Notwithstanding the preceding pecuniary mulets, it shall be lawful for the president, tutors, and professors, to punish under-graduates by boxing, when they shall judge the nature or circumstances of the offence call for it." It soon after, however, fell into disuse, and at length, as Mr. Peirce states, "was expunged from the code, never, we trust, to be recalled from the rubbish of past absurdities."

In the earliest annals of the College, the students seem to have indulged very little in those wild freaks which now so often perplex professors. In those puritan days youths ripened apace into austere men. A dissipated or even frolicksome descendant of the fathers presents a paradoxical idea to the mind. One can hardly but imagine that their infants wore long faces, or that their kneebuckled urchins could ever think of hoops and marbles when pacing to school. As the country grew older and richer, however, livelier fancies began to stir in the stiff-skirted youth. Thus in 1740, a committee appointed to inquire into the state of the College, reported a long list of grievances and enormities. The students are accused of "improving persons in fetching liquors," and of wearing silk night-gowns. A curious law was passed in 1761, "that it shall be deemed an offence if the scholars shall in a sober manner entertain one another and strangers with punch, any law, usage, or custom, to the contrary notwithstanding."

But we must bring our paper to a close, although we could profitably and pleasantly linger longer among the monuments and the recollections of the past in the New World. Who can look back, be he a son of this Alma Mater, or an entire stranger to her, without taking an interest and feeling delight in her honourable career? Often assailed as we believe she has been by evil tongues, and no doubt not only liable to many imperfections, but sometimes chargeable with errors, her course, we learn, has been almost uniformly high, consistent, and upright. The light that was kindled at Harvard in darkness, and which long glimmered or shone with a faint lustre, now burns with a steady and powerful gleam, and thousands have lighted their lamps by it. Emulous and answering flames have now kindled throughout the union, throwing the bright yet mellow beams of letters and science athwart the land-to the remote south and the far west. May Harvard University flourish perpetually!

101

ART. VIII.-History of the Corn Laws. By J. C. PLATT. London: Knight and Co.

WE take for a text this number of "Knight's Store of Knowledge," to lay before our readers some of the more striking and practical views as well as details which belong to the Corn-law question; and shall endeavour, without any degree of heat such as the controversy for the most part excites, to exhibit some of the principal arguments and opinions which are maintained on each side. In order, however, that something like an accurate and adequate notion may be obtained of the various regulations under which the trade in corn and grain has been placed, we first of all avail ourselves of portions of the very clear and succinct account given in the cheap publication before us; and thus, while saving ourselves a great deal of trouble, assist in giving publicity to the merits of this new series of useful knowledge relative to which we refer our readers also to our last number for further information, to be met with in an article on Shakspere.

Mr. Platt divides his subject into two periods:-1st. When England exported considerable quantities of grain annually; and, 2ndly. When she ceased to do so, and became an importing country. Accordingly we have historical details, classed within separate, and in some senses, distinct epochs, with the view of showing what the corn laws are, out of what circumstances they had their rise, and what variations have taken place in the enactments framed at different times for their regulation.

The first epoch, according to Mr. Platt's distribution of his subject, extends over a wide space of time, embracing the earliest notices our national records furnish concerning the prices of grain and the municipal regulations put in force respecting wheat, till we arrive at the year 1688; the landlords having succeeded in carrying a very important measure, immediately after the Revolution.

It was not until after the middle of the 15th century, that any symptom occurs of a corn law for the protection of the home grower. In 1463, the importation from other countries gave rise to complaints, which were followed by a statute, in the preamble of which it is stated that, "Whereas the labourers and occupiers of husbandry within this realm be daily grievously endangered by bringing of corn out of other lands and parts into this realm, when corn of the growing of this realm is at a low price;" and the remedy appointed was, that wheat should not be imported unless the price at the place of import exceeded 6s. 8d. per quarter. By previous enactment, so long as the price of wheat was below 6s. 8d. per quarter, exportation was free, and now by the statute the preamble of which we have just quoted, importation came to be forbidden; so that the intention was to maintain the price at that rate and height, the

agricultural interest having succeeded in carrying two modifications which, it must have been expected, would reciprocate conveniently and surely, respect being solely paid to the benefit of the corngrower. It will be necessary, however, to quote Mr. Platt's rapid summary of the corn-law history, from the point at which we have arrived, down to 1688; for it is impossible to indicate the changes that took place in the system, and the course of restrictive measures in shorter space than he has done. We therefore introduce an extract, which, although occupying too many of our pages, yet affords an interesting and instructive glimpse of national development.

"In 1533-4 an end was put to the system of free exportation which had been established in 1463, and, with some few occasional exceptions, had continued from that time; and thenceforth it was forbidden to export corn and provisions without the king's licence. The statute enacted for this purpose was intended to keep down prices, though the preamble sets out with the rational observation that, forasmuch as dearth, scarcity, good cheap [good market], and plenty [of victual], happeneth, riseth, and chanceth, of so many and divers reasons that it is very hard and difficult to put any certain prices to any such things.' It however ended by enacting that, on complaint being made of high prices, they shall be regulated by the lords of the council, and made known by proclamation; and that farmers and others shall sell their commodities at the prices thus fixed.

During the greater part of the sixteenth century a struggle was maintained by the makers of the laws against the rise of prices which characterised nearly the whole of that period. The discouragement of tillage and the increase of sheep-pastures were supposed to be the main causes of this rise. In 1533 a statute was passed which enacted that no man should keep more than two thousand sheep, except on his own land, and that no tenant should rent more than two farms. The statute entitled 'An Act for the Maintenance and Increase of Tillage and Corn' attempted to force cultivation by enacting that for the future at least as much land should be tilled in every parish as had been under the plough at any time since the accession of Henry VIII., under a penalty, to be exacted from the parish, of 5s. for every acre that should be deficient.

"This remarkable period in the history of agriculture, and in the social condition of the people, was marked by other singular regulations respecting the supply of the necessaries of life and their price. In September, 1549, a proclamation was issued, directed against dealers in the principal articles of food. According to it, no man was to buy and sell the self-same thing again, except brokers, and they were not to have more than ten quarters of grain in their possession at one time. This proclamation directed 'that all justices should divide themselves into the hundreds, and look what superfluous corn was in every barn, and appoint it to be sold at a reasonable price; also, that one must be in every market-town to see the corn bought. Whoso brought no corn to market, as he was appointed, was to forfeit 107., unless the purveyors took it up, or it was sold to the neighbours.' Obedience to these regulations was not confined to the temporary provisions of a proclamation; but in 1551-2 they were, with some modifi

cations, embodied in a statute. By this enactment, engrossers (persons buying corn to sell again) were subjected to heavy penalties. For the third offence they were to be set in the pillory, to forfeit their personal effects, and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. Farmers buying corn for seed were compelled to sell at the same time an equal quantity of their corn in store, under penalty of forfeiting double the value of what they had bought. Persons might engross corn, not forestalling it--that is, enhancing the price or preventing the supply-when wheat was under 6s. 8d. per quarter.

"In 1562-3 a further attempt was made to restrict the operations of buying and selling in articles of food as well as many other commodities. The 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 14, already quoted, contained a proviso that corn-badgers, allowed to that office by three justices of the peace of the county where the said badger dwelt, could buy provisions in open fair or market for towns and citics, and sell them, without being guilty of the offence of forestalling; but this relaxation of the statute was corrected by another statute passed in 1562-3, in the preamble of which the former enactment is thus alluded to:-'Since the making of which act such a great number of persons, seeking only to live easily and to leave their honest labour, have and do daily seek to be allowed to the said office, being most unfit and unmeet for those purposes, and also very hurtful to the commonwealth of this realm, as well as by enhancing the price of corn and grain, as also by the diminishing of good and necessary husbandmen.' It was then enacted, that the licenses to corn-badgers should only be granted once a year by the justices at quarter-sessions, instead of at any period by three justices; and that none were to obtain a licence but resident householders of three years' standing, who are or have been married, and of the age of thirty, and are not servants or retainers to another perThose who received a licence were to have it renewed at the end of every year. Licensed persons were also required to find security not to forestall or engross in their dealings, and not to buy out of open fair or market, except under express licence. The statute did not apply to the counties of Westmoreland, Cumberland, Lancaster, Chester, and York.

son.

"It was scarcely possible for the legislature to do more towards the discouragement of a most useful class of men, whose operations are of such service to society in general, and to the poor in particular. But enactments of this description were loudly demanded by the people, who could scarcely get bread sometimes in consequence of the high price of provisions, which they attributed to the intervention of the corn-dealer between the producer and customer.

"The system introduced in 1534, under which exportation was interdicted, lasted about twenty years, and even during that period was most probably in a great degree inoperative.

"In 1554 a new act was passed, which restored the freedom of export so long as the price of wheat should not exceed 6s. 8d., that of rye 4s., and that of barley 3s. per quarter. The preamble complains that former acts against the exportation of grain and provisions had been evaded, by reason whereof they had grown unto a 'wonderful dearth and extreme prices.' Under the present act, when prices exceeded 6s. 8d. per quarter for wheat,

exportation was to cease; and when it was under that price it could not be exported to any foreign country, or to Scotland, without a licence, under penalty of forfeiting double the value of the cargo as well as the vessel, besides imprisonment of the master and mariners of the vessel for one year. The penalty for exporting a greater quantity than was warranted by the licence was treble the value of the cargo, and imprisonment; and a cargo could be taken only to the port mentioned in the licence. The object of the act was in effect to prevent exportation when there was not a sufficient supply in the home market, and to permit it to be sent abroad so long as it was below a certain price at home.

"In 1562, only eight years after the above act had been passed, the liberty of exportation was extended, and wheat might be carried out of the country when the average price was 10s. per quarter, that of rye, peas, and beans 8s., and that of barley or malt 6s. 8d. per quarter. The better to prevent evasion of the law, it was at the same time enacted that the commodity should only be exported from such ports as her Majesty might by proclamation appoint.

"In 1571 a statute was passed which contains provisions for settling once a-year the average prices by which exportation should be governed. The Lord President and Council in the North, also the Lord President and Council in Wales, and the Justices of Assize, within their respective jurisdictions, 'yearly shall, upon conference had with the inhabitants of the country, of the cheapness and dearth of any kinds of grain,' determine 'whether it shall be meet at any time to permit any grain to be carried out of any port within the said several jurisdictions or limits; and so shall, in writing, under their hands and seal, cause and make a determination either for permission or prohibition, and the same cause to be, by the sheriff of the counties, published and affixed in as many accustomed market-towns and ports within the said shire as they shall think convenient.' The averages, when once struck, were to continue in force until the same authorities ordered otherwise; and if their regulations should be hurtful to the country by means of dearth, or be a great hinderance to tillage by means of too much cheapness,' they could make the necessary alterations. All proceedings under this act were to be notified to the queen or privy council. The statute enacted that, 'for the better increase of tillage, and for maintenance and increase of the navy and mariners of this realm,' corn might be exported at all times to friendly countries, when proclamation was not made to the contrary. A poundage or customs duty of 1s. per quarter was charged on all wheat exported; but if exported under a special licence, and not under the act, the customs duty was 2s. per quarter.

"The law of 1463, which prohibited importation so long as the price of wheat was under 6s. 8d., that of rye under 4s., and that of barley under 3s. the quarter, appears not to have been repealed, but it must have remained inoperative, from the prices seldom or probably never descending below these rates. The importation of corn, therefore, we may reckon to have been practically free at this time, so far as the law could render it so. "In 1592-3 the price at which exportation was permitted was raised to 20s. per quarter, and the customs duty was fixed at 2s. In 1603-4 the importation price was raised to 26s. 8d. per quarter; and, in 1623, to 32s.