that the sockets and supporters of flowers are | &c., bear no flowers. Divers herbs also bear figured; as in the five brethren of the rose, sockets of gillyflowers, &c. Leaves also are all figured; some round; some long; none square; and many jagged on the sides: which leaves of flowers seldom are. For I account the jagging of pinks and gillyflowers to be like the inequality of oak leaves, or vine leaves, or the like: but they seldom or never have any small purls. Experiments in consort touching some principal differences in plants. 591. Of plants, some few put forth their blossoms before their leaves; as almonds, peaches, cornelians, black thorn, &c.; but most put forth some leaves before their blossoms; as apples, pears, plums, cherries, white thorn, &c. The cause is, for that those that put forth their blossoms first, have either an acute and sharp spirit, and therefore commonly they all put forth early in the spring, and ripen very late; as most of the particulars before mentioned, or else an oily juice, which is apter to put out flowers than leaves. 592. Of plants, some are green all winter; others cast their leaves. There are green all winter, holly, ivy, box, fir, yew, cypress, juniper, bays, rosemary, &c. The cause of the holding green, is the close and compact substance of their leaves, and the pedicles of them. And the cause of that again is, either the tough and viscous juice of the plant, or the strength and heat thereof. Of the first sort is holly, which is of so viscous a juice as they make birdlime of the bark of it. The stalk of ivy is tough, and not fragile, as we see in other small twigs dry. Fir, yieldeth pitch. Box is a fast heavy wood, as we see it in bowls. Yew is a strong and tough wood, as we see it in bows. Of the second sort is juniper, which is a wood odorate, and maketh a hot fire. Bays is likewise a hot and aromatical wood; and so is rosemary for a shrub. As for the leaves, their density appeareth, in that either they are smooth and shining, as in bays, holly, ivy, box, &c., or in that they are hard and spiry, as in the rest. And trial would be made of grafting of rosemary, and bays, and box, upon a holly-stock, because they are plants that come all winter. It were good to try it also with grafts of other trees, either fruit trees, or wild trees, to see whether they will not yield their fruit, or bear their leaves later and longer in the winter; because the sap of the holly putteth forth most in the winter. It may be also a mezerion-tree, grafted upon a holly, will prove both an earlier and a greater tree. 593. There be some plants that bear no flower and yet bear fruit; there be some that bear flowers and no fruit; there be some that bear neither flowers nor fruit. Most of the great timber trees, as oaks, beeches, &c. bear no apparent flowers; some few likewise of the fruit trees, as mulberry, walnut, &c., and some shrubs, as juniper, holly, seeds, which is as the fruit, and yet bear no flowers, as purslane, &c. Those that bear flowers and no fruit are few, as the double cherry, the sallow, &c. But for the cherry, it is doubtful whether it be not by art or culture; for if it be by art, then trial would be made, whether apple and other fruit blossoms may not be doubled. There are some few that bear neither fruit nor flower, as the elm, poplars, box, brakes, &c. 594. There be some plants, that shoot still upwards and can support themselves, as the greatest part of trees and plants; there be some other that creep along the ground, or wind about other trees or props, and cannot support themselves, as vines, ivy, brier, briony, woodbines, hops, climatis, camomile, &c. The cause is, as hath been partly touched, for that all plants naturally move upwards; but if the sap put up too fast, it maketh a slender stalk, which will not support the weight; and therefore these latter sort are all swift and hasty comers. Experiments in consort touching all manner of composts, and helps of ground. 595. The first and most ordinary help is stercoration. The sheep's dung is one of the best; and next the dung of kine: and thirdly, that of horses, which is held to be somewhat too hot unless it be mingled. That of pigeons for a garden, as a small quantity of ground, excelleth. The ordering of dung is, if the ground be arable, to spread it immediately before the ploughing and sowing; and so to plough it in for if you spread it long before, the sun will draw out much of the fatness of the dung: if the ground be grazing ground, to spread it somewhat late towards winter, that the sun may have the less power to dry it up. As for special composts for gardens, as a hot bed, &c. we have handled them before. : 596. The second kind of compost is, the spreading of divers kinds of earths; as marle, chalk, sea sand, earth upon earth, pond earth; and the mixtures of them. Marle is thought to be the best, as having most fatness; and not heating the ground too much. The next is sea sand, which no doubt obtaineth a special virtue by the salt; for salt is the first rudiment of life. Chalk over-heateth the ground a little; and therefore is best upon cold clay grounds, or moist grounds; but I heard a great husband say, that it was a common error, to think that chalk helpeth arable ground, but helpeth not grazing grounds; whereas, indeed, it helpeth grass as well as corn: but that which breedeth the error is, because after the chalking of the ground they wear it out with many crops without rest, and then indeed afterwards it will bear little grass, because the ground is tired out. It were good to try the laying of chalk upon arable grounds a little while before ploughing; and to plough it in as they do the dung; but then it must be friable first by rain or 599. The fifth help of ground is, heat and lying. As for earth, it composeth itself; for I warmth. It hath been anciently practised to burn knew a great garden that had a field, in a manner,' heath, and ling, and sedge, with the vantage of the poured upon it, and it did bear fruit excellently wind, upon the ground. We see that warmth the first year of the planting: for the surface of of walls and inclosures mendeth ground: we see the earth is ever the fruitfulest. And earth so also, that lying open to the south mendeth ground: prepared hath a double surface. But it is true, we see again, that the foldings of sheep help as I conceive, that such earth as hath saltpetre ground, as well by their warmth as by their bred in it, if you can procure it without too much compost: and it may be doubted whether the charge, doth excel. The way to hasten the breed- covering of the ground with brakes in the begining of saltpetre, is to forbid the sun, and the ning of the winter, whereof we spake in the last growth of vegetables. And therefore if you make experiment, helpeth it not, by reason of the a large hovel, thatched, over some quantity of warmth. Nay, some very good husbands do susground; nay, if you do but plank the ground over, pect, that the gathering up of flints in flinty it will breed saltpetre. As for pond earth, or ground, and laying them on heaps, which is river earth, it is a very good compost; especially much used, is no good husbandry, for that they if the pond have been long uncleansed, and so would keep the ground warm. the water be not too hungry and I judge it will 600. The sixth help of grounds is by watering be yet better if there be some mixture of chalk. and irrigation, which is in two manners; the one 597. The third help of ground is, by some by letting in and shutting out waters at seasonother substances that have a virtue to make ground able times: for water, at some seasons, and with fertile, though they be not merely earth; where- reasonable stay, doth good; but at some other in ashes excel; insomuch as the countries about seasons, and with too long stay, doth hurt: and Ætna and Vesuvius have a kind of amends made this serveth only for meadows which are along them, for the mischief the irruptions many times some river. The other way is, to bring water do, by the exceeding fruitfulness of the soil, caus- from some hanging grounds where there are ed by the ashes scattered about. Soot also, springs, into the lower grounds, carrying it in though thin spread in a field or garden, is tried some long furrows; and from those furrows, to be a very good compost. For salt, it is too drawing it traverse to spread the water. costly; but it is tried, that mingled with seed- this maketh an excellent improvement, both for corn, and sown together, it doth good and I am corn and grass. It is the richer, if those hanging of opinion, that chalk in powder, mingled with grounds be fruitful, because it washeth off some seed-corn, would do good; perhaps as much as of the fatness of the earth; but howsoever it prochalking the ground all over. As for the steep-fiteth much. Generally where there are great ing of the seeds in several mixtures with water overflows in fens, or the like, the drowning of to give them vigour, or watering grounds with compost water, we have spoken of them before. 598. The fourth help of ground is, the suffering of vegetables to die into the ground, and so to fatten it; as the stubble of corn, especially peas. Brakes cast upon the ground in the beginning of winter will make it very fruitful. It were good also to try whether leaves of trees swept together, with some chalk and dung mixed, to give them more heart, would not make a good compost; for there is nothing lost so much as leaves of trees; and as they lie scattered, and without mixture, they rather make the ground sour than otherwise. And them in the winter maketh the summer following more fruitful: the cause may be, for that it keepeth the ground warm, and nourisheth it. But the fen-men hold, that the sewers must be kept so as the water may not stay too long in the spring till the weeds and sedge be grown up; for then the ground will be like a wood, which keepeth out the sun, and so continueth the wet; whereby it will never graze to purpose that year. Thus much for irrigation. But for avoidances, and drainings of water, where there is too much, and the helps of ground in that kind, we shall speak of them in another place. CENTURY VII. and mould or putrefaction; for all putrefaction, if it dissolve not in arefaction, will in the end issue into plants or living creatures bred of putrefaction. I account moss, and mushrooms, and agaric, and other of those kinds, to be but moulds of the ground, walls, and trees, and the like. As for flesh, and fish, and plants themselves, and a number of other things, after a mouldiness, or rottenness, or corrupting, they will fall to breed worms. These putrefactions, which have affinity with plants, have this difference from them: that they have no succession or propagation, though they nourish, and have a period of life, and have likewise some figure. Experiments in consort touching the affinities and differences between plants and animate bodies. 601. THE differences between animate and inanimate bodies, we shall handle fully under the title of life, and living spirits, and powers. We shall therefore make but a brief mention of them in this place. The main differences are two. All bodies have spirits, and pneumatical parts within them but the main differences between animate and inanimate are two: the first is, that the spirits of things animate are all continued with themselves, and are branched in veins, and secret canals, as blood is: and in living creatures, the spirits have not only branches, but certain cells or seats, where the principal spirits do reside, and whereunto the rest do resort; but the spirits in things inanimate are shut in, and cut off by the tangible parts, and are not pervious one to another, as air is in snow. The second main difference is, that the spirits of animate bodies are all in some degree, more or less, kindled and inflamed; and have a fine commixture of flame, and an aerial substance. But inanimate bodies have their spirits no whit inflamed or kindled. And this difference consisteth not in the heat or coolness of spirits; for cloves and other spices, naphtha and petroleum, have exceeding hot spirits, hotter a great deal than oil, wax, or tal-branched, and also inflamed. But first in living low, &c., but not inflamed. And when any of those weak and temperate bodies come to be inflamed, then they gather a much greater heat than others have uninflamed, besides their light and motion, &c. 602. The differences, which are secondary, and proceed from these two radical differences, are, first, plants are all figurate and determinate, which inanimate bodies are not; for look how far the spirit is able to spread and continue itself, so far goeth the shape of figure, and then is determined. Secondly, plants do nourish, inanimate bodies do not; they have an accretion, but no alimentation. Thirdly, plants have a period of life, which inanimate bodies have not. Fourthly, they have a succession and propagation of their kind which is not in bodies inanimate. 603. The differences between plants, and metals or fossils, besides those four before-mentioned, for metals I hold inanimate, are these; first, metals are more durable than plants; secondly, they are more solid and hard; thirdly, they are wholly subterrany; whereas plants are part above earth and part under earth. 606. I left once by chance a citron cut, in a close room, for three summer months that I was absent; and at my return there were grown forth, out of the pith cut, tufts of hairs an inch long, with little black heads, as if they would have been some herb. Experiments in consort touching the affinities and differences of plants and living creatures, and the confiners and participles of them. 607. The affinities and differences between plants and living creatures are these that follow. They have both of them spirits continued, and creatures, the spirits have a cell or seat, which plants have not: as was also formerly said. And secondly, the spirits of living creatures hold more of flame than the spirits of plants do. And these two are the radical differences. For the secondary differences, they are as follow:-First plants are all fixed to the earth, whereas all living creatures are severed, and of themselves. Secondly, living creatures have local motion, plants have not. Thirdly, living creatures nourish from their upper parts, by the mouth chiefly; plants nourish from below, namely, from the roots. Fourthly, plants have their seed and seminal parts uppermost; living creatures have them lowermost; and therefore it was said, not elegantly alone, but philosophically; "Homo est planta inversa;" Man is like a plant turned upwards: for the root in plants is as the head in living creatures. Fifthly, living creatures have a more exact figure than plants. Sixthly, living creatures have more diversity of organs within their bodies, and, as it were, inward figures, than plants have. Seventhly, living creatures have sense, which plants have not. Eighthly, living creatures have voluntary motion, which plants have not. 604. There be very few creatures that participate of the nature of plants and metals both; 608. For the difference of sexes in plants they coral is one of the nearest of both kinds : another is are oftentimes by name distinguished, as malevitriol, for that is aptest to sprout with moisture. piony, female-piony, male-rosemary, female-rose605. Another special affinity is between plants mary, he-holly, she-holly, &c.; but generation by VOL. II.-11 that of the Indian fig, the hasty and plentiful putting forth of the sap. 612. There be three things in use for sweetness; sugar, honey, manna. For sugar, to the ancients it was scarce known, and little used. knuckle, or further up? And whether the very bark of the cane itself do yield sugar or no? For honey, the bee maketh it, or gathereth it; but I have heard from one that was industrious in husbandry, that the labour of the bee is about the wax; and that he hath known in the beginning copulation certainly extendeth not to plants. The nearest approach of it is between the he-palm and the she-palm, which, as they report, if they grow near, incline the one to the other, insomuch as that, which is more strange, they doubt not to report, that to keep the trees upright from bending, they❘ It is found in canes: Query, whether to the first tie ropes or lines from the one to the other, that the contact might be enjoyed by the contact of a middle body. But this may be feigned, or at least amplified. Nevertheless I am apt enough to think, that this same binarium of a stronger and a weaker, like unto masculine and feminine, doth hold in all living bodies. It is confounded of May honeycombs empty of honey; and withsometimes, as in some creatures of putrefaction, wherein no marks of distinction appear: and it is doubled sometimes, as in hermaphrodites: but generally there is a degree of strength in most species. 609. The participles or confiners between plants and living creatures, are such chiefly as are fixed, and have no local motion of remove, though they have a motion in their parts, such as are oysters, cockles, and such like. There is a fabulous narration, that in the northern countries there should be an herb that groweth in the likeness of a lamb, and feedeth upon the grass, in such sort as it will bare the grass round about. But I suppose that the figure maketh the fable; for so, we see, there be bee-flowers, &c. And as for the grass, it seem-you shall see the roots as it were bare without eth the plant having a great stalk and top doth prey upon the grass a good way about, by drawing the juice of the earth from it. Experiments promiscuous touching plants. 610. The Indian fig boweth its roots down so low in one year, as of itself it taketh root again, and so multiplieth from root to root, making of one tree a kind of wood. The cause is the plenty of the sap, and the softness of the stalk, which maketh the bough, being over-loaden, and not stiffly upheld, weigh down. It hath leaves as broad as a little target, but the fruit no bigger than beans. The cause is, for that the continual shade increaseth the leaves, and abateth the fruit, which nevertheless is of a pleasant taste. And that no doubt is caused by the suppleness and gentleness of the juice of that plant, being that which maketh the boughs also so flexible. 611. It is reported by one of the ancients, that there is a certain Indian tree, having few but very great leaves, three cubits long and two broad, and that the fruit, being of good taste, groweth out of the bark. It may be, there be plants that pour out the sap so fast, as they have no leisure either to divide into many leaves, or to put forth stalks to the fruit. With us, trees, generally, have small leaves in comparison. The fig hath the greatest; and next it the vine, mulberry, and sycamore, and the least are those of the willow, birch, and thorn. But there be found herbs with far greater leaves than any tree; as the bur, gourd, cucumber, and colewort. The cause is, like to in a fortnight, when the sweet dews fall, filled like a cellar. It is reported also by some of the ancients, that there is a tree called occhus, in the valleys of Hyrcania, that distilleth honey in the mornings. It is not unlike that the sap and tears of some trees may be sweet. It may be also, that some sweet juices, fit for many uses, may be concocted out of fruits, to the thickness of honey, or perhaps of sugar; the likeliest are raisins of the sun, figs, and currants; the means may be inquired. 613. The ancients report of a tree by the Persian sea, upon the shore sands, which is nourished with the salt water; and when the tide ebbeth, bark, being as it seemeth corroded by the salt, and grasping the sands like a crab; which nevertheless beareth a fruit. It were good to try some hard trees, as a service-tree, or fir-tree, by setting them within the sands. 614. There be of plants which they use for garments, these that follow: hemp, flax, cotton, nettles, whereof they make nettle-cloth, sericum, which is a growing silk; they make also cables of the bark of lime trees. It is the stalk that maketh the filaceous matter commonly; and sometimes the down that groweth above. 615. They have in some countries a plant of a rosy colour, which shutteth in the night, openeth in the morning, and openeth wide at noon; which the inhabitants of those countries say is a plant that sleepeth. There be sleepers enough then; for almost all flowers do the like. 616. Some plants there are, but rare, that have a mossy or downy root; and likewise that have a number of threads, like beards, as mandrakes, whereof witches and impostors make an ugly image, giving it the form of a face at the top of the root, and leaving those strings to make a broad beard down to the foot. Also there is a kind of nard in Crete, being a kind of phu, that hath a root hairy, like a rough-footed dove's foot. So as you may see, there are of roots, bulbous roots, fibrous roots, and hirsute roots. And, I take it, in the bulbous, the sap hasteneth most to the air and sun; in the fibrous, the sap delighteth more in the earth, and therefore putteth downward; and the hirsute is a middle between both, that besides the putting forth upwards and downwards put- lemons, and pomegranates; for the powder of teth forth in round. sugar, and syrup of wine, will serve for more times than once. 617. There are some tears of trees, which are combed from the beards of goats: for when the goats bite and crop them, especially in the mornings, the dew being on, the tear cometh forth, and hangeth upon their beards: of this sort is some kind of laudanum. 618. The irrigation of the plane-tree by wine, is reported by the ancients to make it fruitful. It would be tried likewise with roots; for upon seeds it worketh no great effects. 619. The way to carry foreign roots a long way, is to vessel them close in earthen vessels. But if the vessels be not very great, you must make some holes in the bottom, to give some refreshment to the roots; which, otherwise, as it seemeth, will decay and suffocate. 620. The ancient cinnamon was, of all other plants, while it grew, the dryest, and those things which are known to comfort other plants did make that more sterile; for in showers it prospered worst: it grew also amongst bushes of other kinds, where commonly plants do not thrive, neither did it love the sun. There might be one cause of all those effects; namely, the sparing nourishment which that plant required. Query, how far cassia, which is now the substitute of cinnamon, doth participate of these things? 621. It is reported by one of the ancients, that cassia, when it is gathered, is put into the skins of beasts newly flayed; and that the skins corrupting and breeding worms, the worms do devour the pith and marrow of it, and so make it hollow, but meddle not with the bark, because to them it is bitter. 622. There were in ancient time vines of far greater bodies than we know any, for there have been cups made of them, and an image of Jupiter. But it is like they were wild vines; for the vines that they use for wine, are so often cut, and so much digged and dressed, that their sap spendeth into the grapes, and so the stalk cannot increase much in bulk. The wood of vines is very durable, without rotting. And that which is strange, though no tree hath the twigs, while they are green, so brittle, yet the wood dried is extreme tough, and was used by the captains of armies amongst the Romans for their cudgels. 623. It is reported, that in some places vines are suffered to grow like herbs, spreading upon the ground, and that the grapes of those vines are very great. It were good to make trial, whether plants that use to be borne up by props will not put forth greater leaves and greater fruits if they be laid along the ground; as hops, ivy, woodbine, &c. 624. Quinces, or apples, &c., if you will keep them long, drown them in honey; but because honey, perhaps, will give them a taste over-luscious, it were good to make trial in powder of sugar, or in syrup of wine, only boiled to height. Both these would likewise be tried in oranges, 625. The conservation of fruit would be also tried in vessels filled with fine sand, or with powder of chalk; or in meal and flour; or in dust of oak wood; or in mill. 626. Such fruits as you appoint for long keeping, you must gather before they be full ripe; and in a fair and dry day towards noon; and when the wind bloweth not south; and when the moon is under the earth, and in decrease. 627. Take grapes, and hang them in an empty vessel well stopped; and set the vessel not in a cellar, but in some dry place, and it is said they will last long. But it is reported by some, they will keep better in a vessel half full of wine, so that the grapes touch not the wine. 628. It is reported, that the preserving of the stalk helpeth to preserve the grapes; especially if the stalk be put into the pith of elder, the elder not touching the fruit. 629. It is reported by some of the ancients, that fruit put in bottles, and the bottles let down into wells under water, will keep long. €30. Of herbs and plants, some are good to eat raw; as lettuce, endive, purslane, tarragon, cresses, cucumbers, musk-melons, radish, &c.; others only after they are boiled, or have passed the fire; as parsley, clary, sage, parsnips, turnips, asparagus, artichokes, though they also being young are eaten raw: but a number of herbs are not esculent at all; as wormwood, grass, green corn, centaury, hyssop, lavender, balm, &c. The causes are, for that the herbs that are not esculent do want the two tastes in which nourishment resteth; which are fat and sweet; and have, contrariwise, bitter and over-strong tastes, or a juice so crude as cannot be ripened to the degree of nourishment. Herbs and plants that are esculent raw have fatness, or sweetness, as all esculent fruits: such are onions, lettuce, &c. But then it must be such a fatness, (for as for sweet things, they are in effect always esculent,) as is not overgross, and loading of the stomach: for parsnips and leeks have fatness, but it is too gross and heavy without boiling. It must be also in a substance somewhat tender; for we see wheat, barley, artichokes, are no good nourishment till they have passed the fire; but the fire doth ripen, and maketh them soft and tender, and so they become esculent. As for radish and tarragon, and the like, they are for condiments, and not for nourishment. And even some of those herbs which are not esculent, are notwithstanding poculent; as hops, broom, &c. Query, what herbs are good for drink besides the two aforenamed; for that it may, perhaps, ease the charge of brewing, if they make beer to require less malt, or make it last longer. 631. Parts fit for the nourishment of man in plants are, seeds, roots, and fruits; but chiefly |