the language of the Court was different in other respects than inflections from the language of the metropolis. The probabilities seem to be overwhelming in support of Mr Earle's hypothesis, and justify him in saying that the facts admit of no other explanation. The frequenters of the Court, when they were ultimately forced to adopt the language of the people, could not but have found it poorly equipped for the varied needs of polite conversation; and even when they were not under the necessity of importing words from the more cultivated French, must have been compelled to introduce turns of expression to the extent of altering the complexion of the language.

Whatever may be our conclusion as to the sources of Chaucer's language, there can be little doubt that his genius made it the standard language. A poet cannot, of course, invent a language: what he writes must be intelligible to his readers, and his admirers are constrained by the same necessity of being intelligible to their readers. But if a great poet had arisen before Chaucer in the Northern dialect, or if Chaucer himself had written in that dialect, the course of the English language might have been substantially altered. In corroboration of this, Mr Earle remarks that "the Tuscan form of modern Italian was decided by the poetry of Dante, at a time when Florence and Tuscany lay in comparative obscurity, and when more apparent influence was exercised by Venice, or Naples, or Sicily." I suspect, however, that in all such cases the poet must be backed by a cultivated society; and that the only possibility likely to have affected the course of standard English would have been the existence of a high culture in the Court of Scotland, and the ascendancy of a great poet there before the date of Chaucer.

One of the many directions of thorough antiquarian study in this century has been towards the remains of old English; and one of the most valuable triumphs of this patient scholarship has been to restore the versification of Chaucer. Chaucer's metre had been a vexed question ever since he had been reduced to print. The change of pronunciation

had seriously affected the number of syllables in his verses ; and his editors, Thynne and Speght, while they valiantly abused detractors, could not, or at least did not, show how to supply the missing syllables. Ascham, Sidney, Spenser, and others of that age, recorded their admiration of the old poet; but they omitted to say on what principles they scanned his lines. A century later, Dryden, with his vigorous habit of saying what he could not as well as what he could admit, expressed the greatest veneration for Chaucer; but considered that the rough diamond needed smoothing for modern senses. He laid down in the most positive manner that Chaucer's lines often have a syllable too many and often a syllable too few. His peremptory opinion received a considerable shake from the publication of Tyrwhitt's edition in 1778, with its "Essay on the Language and Versification of Chaucer;" but even then a certain amount of scepticism might have been pardonable. One might have been forgiven for entertaining some doubts about Tyrwhitt's liberal restoration of final es, to make up for the deficiency of feet when the text is pronounced with the modern allowance of syllables. Tyrwhitt did not apply sufficiently convincing scholarship to show that these es were "survivals" of French and old English (or Anglo-Saxon) terminations, and, still more largely, of old English inflections. This was first thoroughly done by Guest, who pointed out that the dropping of the final e is the exception, and expressed a hope that we should one day have a list of all the words in which Chaucer has taken that liberty. I am not aware that the more recent labours of Mr Ellis, Mr Skeat, and Mr Furnivall, have realised this hope, but they have gone a considerable way towards its fulfilment. The general reader should see the sections added to Tyrwhitt's Essay by Mr Skeat, in the Aldine edition of Chaucer, vol. i.

But not only have the missing syllables been recovered by modern scholarship: an attempt has been made by Mr Ellis, in his elaborate and ingenious work on Early English Pronunciation, to recover the sounds of the vowels, so that

Chaucer may be declaimed as he was by his contemporaries. Mr Ellis proceeds on the supposition that no two words were set down as rhymes unless their sounds agreed perfectly; and he starts from known vowel-sounds of Latin, French, and English of the sixteenth century. The investigation is interesting, and the results are as trustworthy as the undertaking is courageous; but nothing can restore for us the old music of Chaucer's verse. It is musical to usexquisitely so - but the music is not the music that delighted the Court of Richard II. We may learn to repeat the articulations of his contemporaries, but we cannot hear with their ears.

Chaucer has three principal metres: four-accent couplets (the metre of Milton's "Comus "), in the "Romance of the Rose," "Chaucer's Dream," the "Book of the Duchess," and the "House of Fame;" rhyme-royal-the metre of Shakespeare's "Lucrece "—(a stanza of seven decasyllables, with rhymes of 1, 3 + 2, 4, 5 + 6, 7), in the "Court of Love," the "Parliament of Birds," the "Flower and the Leaf," four of the Canterbury Tales,' and "Troilus and Cresside;" and heroic, or five-accent couplets, in the "Legend of Good Women," and most of the 'Canterbury Tales.'

The four-accent couplet is the original metre of the Roman de la Rose and nearly all the French fabliaux, and was the most common metre in English poetry during the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. It is the prevailing form in Dr Morris's 'Specimens of Early English,' being

1 " The epithet royal seems to be derived from the chant-royal of the French, a short poem in ballet-stave, written in honour of God and the Virgin Mary; and by which, according to French critics, the abilities of the king were tested in the poetical contests at Rouen."-Guest's English Rhythms, ii. 359. According to Warton, the title "Balad-Royal was first used in English by Caxton, being applied to Herbert de Burgh's stanza in his Translation of Cato's Morals. Gascoigne calls the same stave "rythm-royal." It is sometimes said that the epithet "royal" was derived from the circumstance that the stave was used by James I. of Scotland in the 'King's Quhair;' but this is probably a later supposition based only upon the coincidence. If it had been the tradition, James VI. of Scotland would hardly have applied the term "ballet-royal" to the stave of eight, designating the seven-line stave-after its first memorable appearance in English-Troilus verse.

used for all kinds of narrative matter, fables, romances, tales, 'Sunday Sermons,' and political songs. Its facility is rather a temptation than a check to a loquacious narrator; and Chaucer dances along in his jingling fetters with the greatest vivacity, as if his fertile invention wanted some severer restraint. He dashes off every now and then into digressive reflections, and recalls himself with an effort, as if he could hardly refrain from throwing in a few more of the facile couplets before he had done.

"Troilus verse" was the favourite form of the fifteenth century, and was frequently used in the sixteenth. It was, indeed, the great stanza of English poetry, till Spenser superseded it with the fuller music of his more elaborate structure, and is a simpler and homelier dress corresponding with the youth of the English muse. It may be disputed in which of the two stanzas the greatest quantity of English poetry has been written; for while Troilus verse was used by many poets of the fourteenth century whose names even are seldom repeated now, the Spenserian was the favourite stanza of the great revival at the close of the eighteenth century, numbering among its patrons Shenstone, Thomson, and Beattie, Campbell, Scott, Byron, Shelley, and Keats. Chaucer used the sevenline stanza to embody graceful allegories, and tales of sweet pathos. His choice of this medium for the touching stories of Constance and Griselda, and the woful legends of Cecilia and little Nicholas, is approved by the later employment of it in Spenser's "Ruins of Time," Daniel's "Complaint of Rosamond," and Shakespeare's "Lucrece " and "Lover's Complaint." It is worth noting that though Lydgate adopted the same stanza for his tragical "Falls of Princes," Chaucer employs a heavier eight-line stanza for his Monk's "Tragedies," or brief commiserations of potentates that had fallen out of great prosperity. The seven-line stave with its single repeat and appended couplet, a form that lends itself naturally to the expression of graceful afterthought or irrepressible sob, is too quick a measure for the embodiment of statelier feeling. This was felt by Michael

Drayton when, after composing his poem on the wars of the Barons of Richard II. in Troilus verse, he recast the whole into heavier ottava rima. But ottava rima (the stanza of 'Don Juan'), though strong enough for the vigorous march of Drayton's narrative, would not have been sufficiently inwoven for the grave reflective sentiments of the Monk's Laments, which are written in eight banded lines (1, 3+2, 4, 5, 7+6, 8)-the Spenserian stanza without the concluding Alexandrine.

Five-accent couplets are more suited for comedy and the comic epic, than for tragedy and the grand epic. This can be called "heroic verse" only when heroism is taken to imply a minimum of dignified feeling. There is, doubtless, a certain strenuousness in its movement when the matter is heavy; it may be used to convey the impression of bold. splendid energy: but dignity and stateliness are out of the question. If the ear attends to the rhyme at all, the expectation of it must be more or less of a distraction from the feeling of massive grandeur. With the lighter material of comedy, the regular beat of the rhyme is cheerful and animating, if the couplet is occasionally divided and other means are used to prevent the regularity from becoming tedious. If one were disposed to venture on fine distinctions, one might say that the ottava rima of Anster Fair' and 'Don Juan' is the peculiarly appropriate metre of the light epic, while the couplet is the predestined vehicle of dramatic comedy. In the theatre the ear cannot wait for the close of a stanza through several verses without fatigue, and the quick recurrence of the rhyme is imperative. In a light narrative intended to be read, longer suspense is permissible, while at the same time the nature of the subject forbids intricacy; and ottava rima with its simple even structure seems to answer the purpose about as exactly as could be desired.

Chaucer's similitudes are taken from such familiar sources, that M. Sandras charges him with giving a vulgar tone to his renderings of the chivalrous romances of Boccaccio.