The preponderance of the Teachers was confirmed, by their being the only representatives of the whole scholastic body to those without. As that body grew in importance, it attracted the attention even of the temporal Sovereign, and much earlier that of the Pope. Now to whom but the Teachers should the Pope address himself, when the Chancellor had practically transferred to them his most important prerogative? The Popes especially aimed to save the Universities from becoming subservient merely to local interests, and elevate them into general organs of the Church: and the intercourse hence arising, exhibited and confirmed the supreme authority of the Teachers.

We have seen how the first grant to them by the Chancellor, drew after it, almost by necessity and by natural developement, the full system of their power. It must be observed also, that as the scholars originally went through their entire education in a single school, each teacher was supreme enactor of the curriculum of study for his own scholars. When therefore the Teachers coalesced, it could not but be that they possessed collectively the powers of scholastic legislation, which they had already exercised individually; and, there is no question that it lay from the beginning with the body of Masters (Magistri) and Doctors. Yet it is as

* Bulæus, iii. 141, from the Constitution of Gregory IX.— Constitutiones faciendi de modo et horà legendi et disputandi, &c. .. concedimus facultatem."

certain that the Church claimed the right of supervision and as the matter grew in general estimation, Bishops, Councils, and especially Popes, interfered by undisputed right in minor details of scholastic discipline; yet without detriment to the internal independence of the Teachers. Such anomalies may appear irreconcilable to modern readers; but they need not seem so, if it be remembered that no systematic Constitutions were aimed at ; but things were regulated for then once, as occasion demanded: a process which worked quite as well with them, as the opposite method with us. Precedent was their general recognised guide. It had indeed to be disentangled, defined, and confirmed; but it was sure to be well meant and well adapted to the spirit of the system. This method of proceeding first unfolded itself in the old Cathedral and Abbey Schools, and descended with certain modifications to the new Academies.

13. On the Degrees of Bachelor and Master.

The mode of instruction in the higher branches, was such, as to call out the self-activity of the scholars; the more advanced propounding questions to the rest, especially in the terminal exercises.* We cannot enter into the varying details, practically

* [In the original: "Determinationen, (Definitionen,) Disputationen."]

important as they were; but on two things we must dwell a moment. The Bachelor's degree rose out of the separate scholastic disputations, and concerned only the internal economy of one school; it needed therefore no general authorisation. But the Master's degree, (Magistratus, Doctoratus, Regentia,) implied the right of opening a school oneself, and was originally dependent on the Chancellor's licence. It was not then an academical dignity, but was a mere leave to keep school, granted by an ecclesiastical officer, who within recent memory had been himself the Schoolmaster. But when the Teachers had risen into a Universitas Literaria, with authority practically their own (in spite of the Chancellor's theoretical rights) to confer the licence, the reception of it became an honor, for which many competed who had no wish to keep a school. The Licence was but the testimonial and attribute of the academical dignity now obtained.

The Licentiate thus accepted, was, by virtue of express Papal privileges, competent to open a school any where; but he was not yet member of any particular corporation of teachers. As a general rule however, he would naturally gain formal admission into that under which he had been educated. He received a Hat, as symbolic of his admission among the Magistri (Teachers,

* In cases of controversy between the Teachers and Chancellor, while things were still wavering, appeal was made to the Pope.

Masters,) and so regular did this proceeding be come, that it was soon looked upon as the legitimate consequence of attaining the licence.

Those who sought and attained this dignity, were in due time called-on to declare whether they really intended to come forward as Teachers. In case they declined, they were naturally disabled from taking part in certain business, conferences and decisions, immediately connected with the relation of Teacher to Scholar. Hence arose the distinction between the Magistri Regentes and the Magistri non Regentes, the former of whom formed a kind of select committee possessing a preponderating influence in academic matters. With the difference of Actu Regentes from Necessariè Regentes we have nothing to do at present.

§ 14. Public trial of Candidates for Degrees.

Another step was, to convert the private exercises in the schools of the separate teachers, into a part of the general University system. Thus the "determinations" and "disputations" between the scholars themselves, became public academical solemnities, in which the candidate had to make good his ability to teach, prior to obtaining the recommendation, the licence, and the incorporation. Examinations on a narrower scale, either by the Chancellor, or by the Teachers, proportionally fell

into disuse and indeed were superfluous, while the disputations retained their life. In the same manner was the Bachelor's degree afterwards raised into an academic dignity; and when it was thus become pre-requisite to the degree of Master or Doctor, the latter naturally assumed the character of a second and higher degree.

We cannot here enter into the details of a

fluctuating system; nor into the etymology of technical terms, into the primitive meaning of ceremonies, nor into the history of fees, presents, and treats, which the candidates were to give per fas aut nefas.* The changing sense of terms involves harassing difficulties, which cannot be investigated in this work. But we have reason to believe that up to the end of the twelfth century the title of Bachelor denoted merely a scholastic step; after the middle of the thirteenth, exclusively an academic dignity. In the interim, there was irregularity and it must be kept in mind, that the elevation of the Teachers into a corporate ruling body, preceded the developement of the academic dignities.

* Bulæus is ample on the subject. Meiners thinks that much may be said upon all the points.