claimant, or where the estate was situated, I cannot tell. Whether there is any other possible | interests of dog and man would be conflicting, as is still the case where wild dogs exist, such as the dingoes of Australia, the dholes of India, and the hyena-like wild dogs of Central and southern Africa. When I tried to pick up some more scraps of information and fuller particulars, I was repulsed somewhat tartly. "I know my father stole my mother- It must be borne in mind that in dealthat is all I know. But, Lor'! she was ing with these primitive canine creaas bad as he was o' course she was!"tures, the word "dog" is used in its Shocked by the callousness of the re- widest sense, and must include such buff, I asked no more, and shall not animals as wolves and jackals, which ask again. AUGUSTUS JESSOPP. undoubtedly share in the ancestry of our familiar domestic breeds. From The Contemporary Review. CANINE MORALS AND MANNERS. Probably the partnership first began. through small helpless whelps being brought home by the early hunters, and being afterwards cared for and brought It is always interesting to trace the up by the women and children. The various habits and attributes of our do- indifference with which almost all savmestic animals which form the bond of ages regard their dogs seem to negative their association with us back to their the idea that primitive man took the natural origin. In doing so we can trouble to tame and train adult wild hardly fail to reach some suggestive in- animals of this kind for his own purferences which bear upon our own early poses. The young dog would form one history as well as upon that of the ani- of the family, and would unconsciously mals we study. regard himself as such. The reason why he should so regard himself will be discussed later when we come to consider the probable canine view of the relationship. Most of our dumb companions and helpers have become modified by changing circumstances since the partnership began even more than ourselves, and have become partakers with us of the advantages and disadvantages of our civilization. This is especially so in the case of the dog, man's closest associate and earliest ally. The many who happily respond to his affectionate and loyal service by regarding him as worthy of the consideration of a valued friend, will, it is hoped, follow with pleasure a few thoughts here put forward which have arisen from a study of the habits that now characterize him as compared with those of his wild relatives. We must remember that although the dog is now our friend, with interests in the main in harmony with ours, he was not always so. The wild dog and wild man might have been chance allies when, for instance, a fatigued quarry pursued by the pack was struck down by a flint weapon, and the greater part of the carcase left to the original hunters; or when a wounded animal escaped its human foe to be followed up and devoured by the dogs. But, as a rule, the It would soon be found that his hunting instinct was of use to his captors, for while wandering abroad with them his keen nose would detect the presence of hidden game when the eyes of his savage masters failed to perceive it; and when a wounded animal dashed away, his speed and instinct for following a trail by scent would often secure what would otherwise have been lost. The dog in his turn would find an easier living and a better shelter while associated with man than if he were hunting on his own account, and thus the compact would be cemented by mutual benefits. Now let us consider why the dog should so readily fall into the position of the companion and subordinate of man. What "stock and good-will" did he bring into the partnership besides his swiftness and powers of scenting and seizing his quarry? Let us look for a moment at his life at home as apart from his duties while hunting. In the first place, he evidently regards the dwelling of his master as his own place and even dingoes and wolves, learning of abode in which he has certain vested to bark by spontaneous imitation of interests, and, while he is complaisant domestic dogs. Foxes make a noise very and submissive to the regular inhabi- like barking when they challenge one tants, he looks upon strangers of all kinds with suspicion, and regards their intrusion as an infringement of his rights, or of his rudimentary sense of what is lawful. Although watch-dogs have doubtless been valued for many generations, and their distinctive qualities cultivated by artificial selection, it seems clear that here we are dealing with an original instinct. another among the hills at night, and it is not difficult to provoke an answer by imitating the sound under appropriate conditions. It seems probable, therefore, that the common ancestor of our domestic dogs and their wild relatives, which no doubt lived under somewhat different conditions from any modern feral creatures of the kind, was a barking animal. As I have already said, the very fact that the dog barks when alarmed is an The pariah dogs of Constantinople and other Eastern cities, which are practically as untamed as their fellow scav-indication that he is a creature of greengers the vultures, crows, and jackals, and which probably have only in the slightest degree ever come under direct human influence, have the same habit. Each street is the recognized dwelling-place of an irregular pack, and dogs -and in some cases even men-from other quarters are warned off or attacked if they cross the boundary. It is said also that the wild dogs of India will drive off a tiger if he strays into the neighborhood of their chosen habitat. Even tame wolves will, without being taught, threaten a stranger if he comes near their master's house, but will take no notice of the coming and going of the regular inmates. garious instincts, and that he is accustomed to act in concert with others. The sound is a signal to his comrades as well as a threat to the intruder. If this be not so, what can be the meaning and intention of the different tones he adopts according to the nature of the provocation, which are capable of conveying to ears afar off an idea of the measure and nearness of the danger? Most of our domestic animals, and all which act under our orders and give us willing obedience, are gregarious in their habits when in the wild state. A little thought will show that many of the qualities for which we prize them are dependent upon this fact, and that It would seem, therefore, that the we are the gainers by turning to our own watch-dog's peculiar virtue is directly use the stock of tribal virtues and traceable to the old instinct for guarding morals which they bring with them into the lair of the pack. And in following our service, just in the same way as we this instinct the dog indicates that it is gain by appropriating the winter foodnot his custom to act single-handed. | store of the bees, and the supply of The very fact that he growls or barks at starch and gluten laid up for future use a stranger shows that a vocal intimation | by many plants. An animal of a troop to his fellows of the presence of a possi- has perforce certain social duties and obble enemy is part of his plan. Every one has noticed that the barking of one dog will set off others within hearing, so that on a still night an alarm at one spot will disturb a whole suburb. Although no wolves or wild dogs are known to bark in the true canine manner, it is impossible to imagine that so distinct and almost universal a habit of the domestic varieties can have been deliberately initiated by man. Several instances are recorded of Eskimo dogs, ligations, which, as can be shown, are necessary for his own existence as well as for the welfare of the community. He must learn to give and take, and be prepared to follow and obey the members of greater capacity and experience. It is essential that he should be of a peaceable disposition, as a general rule, among his mates, so as to preserve the harmony of the band; since a pack of dogs, like a house, divided against itself, will soon prove its unfitness, and be also be prepared to stand by his fellows, defend them or any of them if attacked, and warn them if danger approaches. eliminated according to law. He must | independently, as cats do, large animals such as the elk or bison would be of no use to them as articles of diet, and they might starve in the midst of plenty. But if they combine and act under the guidance of experienced leaders they can at once utilize what would else be, in canine economy, a waste product. Seeing that most wild animals of the canine tribe prey upon quarry swifter and larger than themselves, their common welfare depends upon systematic and intelligent co-operation. A single hound following a trail by scent, will frequently be at a loss; for every now and then it will overrun and miss the line; but when several are together this will seldom happen, and the pace of the pursuit will consequently be much greater and the chance of a meal more certain. In searching for prey it is necessary for the pack to separate, so as to range a wider area, but the instant a "find" takes place it is important that all should be informed at once, so that a united pursuit may be taken up while the scent is warm. Among all hounds and many wild dogs the signal is given by the voice, but, as will be shown later, the dog has another and very perfect method of signalling in addition to this. For the canine tail, when considered philosophically, turns out to be nothing but an animated semaphore, by means of which important news can be telegraphed to the rest of the pack, in much the same way as messages are exchanged between different detachments of an army by the modern development of military signalling popularly known as "flag-wagging." Of course in hunting all large and swift animals a great deal can be done by strategy, and this involves a common plan of action often of an elaborate kind, and the giving and taking of orders by the leaders and other members of the band respectively. The value of quick perception and general intelligence, as well as of a readiness to co-operate, here at once become apparent, for without these qualities no such combination could be successfully carried out. Again, when the prey is within reach, it often requires the united efforts of the whole pack, acting intelligently in concert, to pull it down. If a number of wolves or wild dogs were scattered over a district, each acting for himself As has been pointed out, this needful co-operation at once involves the elements of politics and morals. The obedience of the young and inexperienced to their leaders, and the observance of certain rules of conduct, are a sine quâ non of the success of any strategic combination. It follows, therefore, that the young of gregarious animals of all kinds, and especially those of this type, are submissive and teachable, and have thus the very qualities we desire in creatures which are to be trained for our special use. In fact, we have here the natural basis for that docility and readiness to obey which is such a noticeable and invaluable characteristic in dogs as we know them. They must also be faithful to their fellows in word and deed. A hound which gives tongue when he has no quarry before him (and such canine liars are not unknown, as any huntsman will testify), may spoil a day's hunt and send the whole pack supperless to bed. It is interesting and amusing to observe the evident contempt with which the hounds of a pack regard an untruthful member. His failing becomes perfectly well known, and let him bay as he will, not one of his companions will rush to the spot as they do the moment they hear the slightest whimper from a trusted and experienced finder. Loyalty to one another is also a virtue which cannot be done without. Thus we see that, however great the emulation between the individual members of the band, while the hunt is on it is kept strictly within bounds, and is subordinated to the common purpose. It is only after the game is captured and killed that contests of individuals for a share of the plunder commence. The very fact that an invitation is given to join in the pursuit as soon as the quarry is started, instead of the finder stealing | the game comes into view will cease off after it on his own account, is an the more tedious method of following, illustration of this; and if one of the and dash forward at full speed to seize pack is attacked by the hunted animal it. at bay or by an enemy, his howls and excited outcry are instantly responded to by all within hearing. Every one has noticed the uncontrollable power of this instinct when the yells and shrieks of a canine street brawl are heard. Dogs from all sides rush to the spot and immediately take part in the quarrel. The result generally is a confused free fight of a very irregular description, and each dog is apparently ready to bite any of the others. It will easily be seen that this confusion is owing to a disarrangement of natural politics, caused by the disturbing and arbitrary influence of human institutions. If two of the combatants happen to be comrades they will hold together and treat all the rest as enemies. In the wild state the sounds of strife would mean either a faction fight, or a combat with some powerful enemy of the pack, and probably in the former case every dog within hearing would be a member of one or other of the contending parties. By adopting dogs into our families and separating them from their fellows we upset canine political economy in many ways; but still the old loyal instinct to rush to the support of supposed friends in distress is so strong, that a ladies' pug has been known to spring from a carriage to take part in a scrimmage between two large collies. Among wild dogs pursuing large and powerful game, the need and scope for such specialists would be even greater and more important. If one of these were lost through not being well backed up in time of peril, the whole pack would be the sufferers in a very material degree; for it would often fail to start, or lose during pursuit, some animal which might otherwise have been captured. The study of this communal canine morality is very interesting when considered along with Mr. Herbert Spencer's theories of ethics. It is here dwelt upon, however, merely to explain on scientific principles, many traits of our domestic dogs, which (as is too commonly the case with those who receive benefits) we are liable to profit by and take for granted. The great naturalist Cuvier observed that all animals that readily enter into domestication consider man as a member of their own society and thus fulfil their instinct of association. The probable view of the fox-terrier or the dachshund which lies upon our hearthrug, therefore, is that he is one of a pack the other members of which are the human inhabitants of the house. Most interesting would it be, were it possible, to get the dog's precise view of the situation. The chief bar to our doing so is owing to the difficulty of putAmong wild dogs the prosperity of ting our human minds, even in imaginathe community might be fatally im- tion, within the restricting limits of the paired by a lapse of this instinctive loy- canine thinking apparatus. Thus we alty. All who have had to do with constantly see, when anecdotes of the hounds know that every pack contains cleverness of dogs are told, that the narcertain individuals whose special talents rator is quite unable, in estimating the are invaluable to the rest. Generally supposed motives and mental processes, one or two of a pack of beagles do most to get out of himself sufficiently to esof the finding when driving rabbits in cape the inveterate tendency to anthrothe furze, and in the case of a lost trail pomorphism; and he almost invariably another individual will be, as a rule, gives the dog credit for faculties which the successful one in making skilful it is very doubtful if it possesses. casts forward to pick up the line of When we come to consider how few scent. Another, again, will possess persons have that power of imaginaquicker vision and greater swiftness in tive sympathy with their own kind running than the others, and the instant which enables us to see to some extent through another's mental spectacles, it | the more probable does this view beis no matter of surprise that a human come. If we, with our much wider being should generally fail in trying to think like a dog. Thinking, after all, is, like flying, an organic process, dependent in every case on actual physical machinery; and dissimilarity of brain structure therefore absolutely precludes us from seeing eye to eye, mentally, with the lower animals. But this structural difference of brain with its inevitable consequences, although it baulks us in one way, comes to our aid in another. As has been said, our custom of ascribing human faculties and modes of thought is an involuntary and invariable one when we are dealing with the mental processes of other beings. Even when we speak of the supernatural the same habit is manifest, and human passions, emotions, and weaknesses, are constantly ascribed to beings presumed to be infinitely more remote from us in power and knowledge than we are from the dog. Thus we see in the not very distant past, roasted flesh and fruits were thought by men to be acceptable to the gods; doubtless because they were pleasing to the palates of the worshippers, who reasoned by analogy from the known to the unknown. This should teach us to bear in mind that there is, affecting the dog's point of view, almost undoubtedly such a thing as cynomorphism, and that he has his peculiar and limited ideas of life and range of mental vision, and therefore perforce makes his artificial surroundings square with them. range of mental vision, and infinitely greater imaginative grasp of remote possibilities, the result of our reading and experience, are still bound by the tether of our own brain limits to anthropomorphic criteria when endeavoring to analyze superhuman existences, still more is it likely that the dog, with his mere chink of an outlook on the small world around him, is completely hedged in by canine notions and standards when his mind has to deal with creatures of higher and mysterious attributes. At any rate, it will not be difficult to show that the dog's habits are generally consistent with this hypothesis. As far as mental contact is concerned, he treats his master and the human members of the household as his comrades, and behaves in many ways as if he were at home with the pack. Thus all the tribal virtues previously mentioned come into play. He guards the common lair and becomes a watch-dog, and by his barking calls his adopted brethren to his aid. He submits readily to the rules of the house because an animal belonging to a community must be prepared to abide by certain laws which exist for the common good. He defends his master if attacked — or, possibly, if not a courageous dog, gets up a vehement alarum to call others to his aid-because he has an instinctive knowledge of the importance of loyalty to a comrade, and because, as has been shown, loyalty to a leader is especially necessary. He is ready in understanding and been said that a man stands to his dog obeying orders, owing to the fact that, in the position of a god; but when we when acting in concert with wild comconsider that our own conceptions of panions, it was absolutely needful that deity lead us to the general idea of an the young and inexperienced should enormously powerful and omniscient comprehend and fall in with the purMan, who loves, hates, desires, rewards, pose of the more intelligent veterans. and punishes, in human-like fashion, it The same ancestral habits and tendeninvolves no strain of imagination to cies render him helpful as a sporting conceive that from the dog's point of dog, and in herding or driving sheep view his master is an elongated and and cattle. This last employment is abnormally cunning dog; of different very much like a mild kind of hunting, shape and manners certainly to the com- under certain special rules and restricmon run of dogs, yet canine in his tions, and with the killing left out. It essential nature. has been observed that the Indian The more one considers the matter dholes will patiently and slowly drive It has |