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The oil, extracted from it by a press, enabled the Jews to carry on an extensive commerce with the Tyrians (Ezek. xxvii. 17. compared with 1 Kings v. 11.): they also sent presents of oil to the kings of Egypt. (Hos. xii. 1.) The berries of the olive tree were sometimes plucked or carefully shaken off by the hand before they were ripe. (Isa. xvii. 6. xxiv. 13. Deut. xxiv. 20.) It appears from Micah vi. 15. that the presses for extracting the oil were worked with the feet: the best and purest oil, in Exod. xxvii. 20. termed pure oil-olive beaten, was that obtained by only beating and squeezing the olives, without subjecting them to the press.

Among the judgments with which God threatened the Israelites for their sins, it was denounced, that though they had olive trees through all their coasts, yet they should not anoint themselves with the oil, for the olive should cast her fruit (Deut. xxviii. 40.); being blasted (as the Jerusalem Targum explains it) in the very blossom, the buds should drop off for want of rain, or the fruit should be eaten with worms. Maimonides observes,1 that the idolaters in those countries pretended by certain magical arts to preserve all manner of fruit, so that the worms should not gnaw the vines, nor either buds or fruits fall from the trees (as he relates their words out of one of their books): in order therefore that he might deter the Israelites from all idolatrous practices, Moses pronounces that they should draw upon themselves those very punishments, which they endeavoured by such means to avoid.

The antient Hebrews were very fond of Gardens, which are frequently mentioned in the sacred writings, and derive their appellations from the prevalence of certain trees; as the garden of nuts and of pomegranates. (Sol. Song vi. 11. iv. 13.) The modern inhabitants of the East take equal delight in gardens with the antient Hebrews, on account of the refreshing shade and delicious fruits which they afford, and also because the air is cooled by the waters of which their gardens are never allowed to be destitute. (1 Kings xxi. 2. 2 Kings xxv. 4. Eccles. ii. 5, 6. John xviii. 1. xix. 41.) The Jews were greatly attached to gardens, as places of burial: hence they frequently built sepulchres in them. (2 Kings xxi. 18. Mark xv. 46.) A pleasant region is called a garden of the Lord, or of God, that is, a region extremely pleasant. See examples in Gen. xiii. 10. Isa. li. 3. and Ezek. xxxi. 8.

SECTION II.

ON THE ARTS OF THE HEBREWS.

I. Origin of the Arts.-State of them from the Deluge to the time of Moses.-II. State of the Arts from the time of Moses until the Captivity.-III. State of the Arts after the Captivity.-IV. Account of

1 More Nevosh. p. 3. c. 37.

some of the Arts practised by the Jews.-Writing ;-Materials used for this purpose ;-Letters;-Form of Books.-V. Poetry. -VI. Music and Musical Instruments.-VII. Dancing.

I. THE arts, which are now brought to such an admirable state of perfection, it is universally allowed, must have originated partly in necessity and partly in accident. At first they must have been very imperfect and very limited; but the inquisitive and active mind of man, seconded by his wants, soon secured to them a greater extent, and fewer imperfections. Accordingly, in the fourth generation after the creation of man, we find mention made of artificers in brass and iron, and also of musical instruments. (Gen. iv. 21, 22.) Those communities, which, from local or other causes, could not flourish by means of agriculture, would necessarily direct their attention to the encouragement and improvement of the arts. These, consequently, advanced with great rapidity, and were carried to a high pitch so far back as the time of Noah; as we may learn from the very large vessel built under his direction, the construction of which shows that they must have been well acquainted with some at least of the mechanical arts. They had also, without doubt, seen the operations of artificers in other ways besides that of building, and after the deluge imitated their works as well as they could. Hence it is that, shortly after that event, we find mention made of utensils, ornaments, and many other things which imply a knowledge of the arts. Compare Gen. ix. 21. xi. 1-9. xii. 7, 8. xiv. 1-16. xvii. 10. xvii. 4-6. xix. 32. xxxi. 19. 27. 34.

II. Egypt in the early age of the world excelled all other nations in a knowledge of the arts. The Hebrews, in consequence of remaining four hundred years with the Egyptians, must have become initiated to a considerable degree into that knowledge, which their masters possessed. Hence we find among them men, who were sufficiently skilful and informed to frame, erect, and ornament the tabernacle. Moses, it is true, did not enact any special laws in favour of the arts, nor did he interdict them or lessen them in the estimation of the people; on the contrary, he speaks in the praise of artificers. (Exod. xxxv. 30-35. xxxvi. 1. et seq. xxxviii. 22, 23. &c.) The grand object of Moses in a temporal point of view, was to promote agriculture, and he thought it best, as was done in other nations, to leave the arts to the ingenuity and industry of the people.

Soon after the death of Joshua, a place was expressly allotted by Joab, of the tribe of Judah, to artificers; for in the genealogy of the tribe of Judah, delivered in 1 Chron. iv. 14., we read of a place called the Valley of Craftsmen, and (ver. 21. 23.) of a family of workmen of fine linen, and another of potters: and when Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, the enemy carried away all the craftsmen and smiths. (2 Kings xxiv. 14.) But as proof that their skill in manufactures, and trade therein, could not be very extensive, we find that the prophet Ezekiel (chap. xxvii.) in describing the affluence of the goods which came to Tyre, makes mention of nothing

brought thither from Judæa, except wheat, oil, grapes, and balm, which were all the natural product of their ground. It appears that the mistress of the family usually made the clothing for her husband, her children, and herself, and also for sale. (Exod. xxxv. 25. 1 Sam. ii. 19. Prov. xxxi. 18-24. Acts ix. 39.) Employment, consequently, as far as the arts were concerned, was limited chiefly to those who engaged in the more difficult performances; for instance, those who built chariots, hewed stones, sculptured idols or made them of metal, or who made instruments of gold, or silver, and brass, and vessels of clay, and the like. (See Judg. xvii. 4. Isa. xxix. 16. xxx. 14. Jer. xxviii. 13.) Artificers among the Hebrews were not, as among the Greeks and Romans, servants and slaves, but men of some rank and wealth: and as luxury and riches increased, they became very numerous. (Jer. xxiv. 1. xxix. 2. 2 Kings xxiv. 14.) Building and architecture, however, did not attain much perfection prior to the reign of the accomplished Solomon. We read, indeed, before the Israelites came into the land of Canaan, that Bezaleel and Aholiab (who were employed in the construction of the tabernacle) excelled in all manner of workmanship (Exod. xxxv. 30-35.), but we are there told, that they had their skill by inspiration from God, and it does not appear that they had any successors; for, in the days of Solomon, when they were at rest from all their enemies, and were perfectly at liberty to follow out improvements of every kind, yet they had no professed artists that could undertake the work of the temple; so that Solomon was obliged to send to Hiram king of Tyre for skilful artist (2 Chron. vii. 13, 14.), by whose direction the model of the temple and all the curious furniture of it was both designed and finished. But after the Jews were under the influence or power of the Romans, there is no doubt that a better taste prevailed among them. Herod, at least, must have employed some architects of distinguished abilities to repair and beautify the temple, and render it the superb structure which the description of Josephus shows that it must have been. From the frequent mention made in sacred history, of numerous instruments and of various operations in metals, we are authorised to infer, as well as from other sources, that a considerable number of the arts was known and practised among them.

III. During the captivity many Hebrews, (most commonly those to whom a barren tract of the soil had been assigned,) applied themselves to the arts and merchandise. Subsequently, when they were scattered abroad among different nations, a knowledge of the arts became so popular, that the Talmudists taught, that all parents ought to learn their children some art or handicraft. They indeed mention many learned men of their nation, who practised some kind of manual labour, or as we should say, followed some trade. Accordingly, we find in the New Testament, that Joseph the husband of Mary was a carpenter, and that he was assisted by no less a personage than our Saviour in his labours. (Matt. xiii. 55. Mark vi. 3.) Simon is mentioned as a tanner in the city of Joppa. (Acts ix. 43. x. 32.) Alexander, a learned Jew, was a copper-smith (2 Tim. iv.

14.); Paul and Aquila were tent-makers, dxnvorosos. Not only the Greeks, but the Jews also, esteemed certain trades infamous. At any rate the Rabbins reckoned the drivers of asses and camels, barbers, sailors, shepherds, and innkeepers, in the same class with robbers. Those Ephesians and Cretans, who were lovers of gain, and Xpoxsgders (1 Tim. iii. 8. Tit. i. 7.), were men, as we may learn from antient writers, who were determined to get money in however base a manner. In the apostolic age, the more eminent Greek tradesmen were united into a society. (Acts xix. 25.)

IV. We read nothing of the art of writing in Scripture, before the copy of the law was given by God to Moses, which was written (that is, engraven) on two tables of stone by the finger of God (Exod. xxxi. 18.), and this is called the writing of God. (Exod. xxxii. 16.) It is therefore probable that God himself was the first who taught letters to Moses, who communicated the knowledge of them to the Israelites, and they to the other eastern nations. Engraving or sculpture seems therefore to be the most antient way of writing, of which we have another very early instance in Exod. xxxix. 30., where we are told, that "holiness to the Lord," was written on a golden plate, and worn on the high priest's head. And we find that the names of the twelve tribes were commanded to be written on twelve rods. (Numb. xvii. 2.) To this mode of writing there is an allusion in Ezek. xxxvii. 16.2 In later times the Jews made use of broad

1 We know that the inhabitants of Yemen or the Southern Arabia were accustomed, in the remotest ages, to inscribe their laws and wise sayings upon stone. See Meidanii Proverb. Arab. p. 45. (cited in Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. i. p.. 198.) and Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary, on Exod. xxxii, 15. 2 Writing on billets or sticks was practised by the Grecks. Plutarch, in his Life of Solon (Vitæ, tom. i. p. 20. ed. Bryan.), and Aulus Gellius (Noct. Att. lib. ii. c. 12.), inform us that the very antient laws of that philosopher, preserved at Athens, were inscribed on tablets of wood called Axones. In later times a similar mode of writing was practised by the aboriginal Britons, who cut their letters upon sticks, which were most commonly squared, and sometimes formed into three sides; consequently a single stick contained either four or three lines. (See Ezek. xxxvii. 16.) The squares were used for general subjects, and for stanzas of four lines in poetry; the trilateral ones were adapted to triades, and for a peculiar kind of antient metre, called Triban or triplet, and Englyn Milwyr, or the warrior's verse. Several sticks with writing upon them were put together, forming a kind of frame, which was called Peithynen or Elucidator; and was so conducted that each stick might be turned for the facility of reading, the end of each running out alternately on both sides of the frame. The subjoined cut

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rushes or flags for writing on, which grew in great abundance in Egypt, and are noticed by the prophet Isaiah when foretelling the confusion of that country. (Isa. xix. 6, 7.) Writing on palm and other leaves is still practised in the East.1

The other eastern nations made use chiefly of parchment, being the thin skins of animals carefully dressed. The best was made at Pergamos, whence it was called Charta Pergamena. It is probable that the Jews learned the use of it from them, and that this is what is meant by a roll (Ezra vi. 2.), and a roll of a book (Jer. xxxvi. 2.), and a scroll rolled together (Isa. xxxiv. 4.): for it could not be thin and weak paper, but parchment which is of some consistency, that was capable of being thus rolled up. St. Paul is the only person

is an engraved specimen of antient British writing, copied from Dr. Fry's elegant work intituled Pantographia. (p. 307.) The following is a literal reading in the modern orthography of Wales, with a correct translation:

Aryv y doeth yw pwyll:

Bid ezain alltud:

Cyvnewid a haelion:

Diengid rhywan eid rhygadarn:

Enwawg meiciad o'i voc:

Goiaden awel yn nghyving :

Hir oreistez i ogan:

Llawer car byw i Indeg."

TRANSLATION.

"The weapon of the wise is reason:

Let the exile be moving:

Commerce with generous ones:

Let the very feeble run away; let the very powerful proceed :

The swineherd is proud of his swine:

A gale is almost ice in a narrow place :

Long penance to slander:

The frail Indeg has many living relations.

A continuation of this mode of writing may be found in the Runic or Clog (a corruption of Log) Almanacks, which prevailed among the northern nations of Europe so late even as the sixteenth century. See a description and engraving of one in Dr. Plot's Natural History of Staffordshire, pp. 418-422.

1 In the Sloanian Library, there are upwards of twenty manuscripts written on leaves, written in the Sanskrit, Burman, Peguan, Ceylonese and other languages. (Ayscough's Catalogue of the Sloane Library, pp. 904-906.) In Tanjore and other parts of India, the palmyra-leaf is used. (Dr. C. Buchanan's "Christian Researches in Asia," pp. 70, 71. 8vo. edit.) The common books of the Burmans, like those of the Hindoos, particularly of such as inhabit the southern parts of India, are composed of the palmyra-leaf, on which the letters are engraved with a stylus. (Symes's Account of an Embassy to Ava, vol. ii. p. 409. 8vo.) In their more elegant books, the Birmans write on sheets of ivory, or on very fine white palmyra-leaves: the ivory is stained black, and the margins are ornamented with gilding, while the characters are enamelled or gilt. On the palmyra-leaves the characters are in general of black enamel and the ends of the leaves and margins are painted with flowers in various bright colours. A hole through both ends of each leaf serves to connect the whole into a volume by means of two strings, which also pass through the two wooden boards that serve for binding. In the finer binding of these kinds of books, the boards are laquered; the edges of the leaves are cut smooth and gilt, and the title is written on the upper board. The two boards are by a knot or jewel secured at a little distance from the boards, so as to prevent the book from falling to pieces, but sufficiently distant to admit of the upper leaves being turned back, while the lower ones are read. The more elegant books are in general wrapped up

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