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onomy xxv. 7-9., viz. " she shall spit in his face, are to be understood literally, the more 'so on this account, because in other places, where spitting, buffeting, &c. are mentioned, they occur under circumstances, where there existed a great excitement of feeling, and because there are not wanting instances of even greater rudeness and violence, than that of spitting in one's face. (Matt. xxvi. 67. Mark xiv. 65. comp. 1 Kings xxii. 24. Isa. lvii. 4. Ezek. ii. 6. xxv. 6. 2 Sam. xvi. 6, 7.) The orientals, as is very well known, are fond of taking a nap at noon, to which they are strongly invited by the oppressive heat of their climate. (2 Sam. iv. 5. xi. 2. Matt. xiii. 25.) The phrase, to cover one's feet, is used in certain instances to express the custom of retiring to rest or sleeping at this time. (Judg. iii. 24. 1 Sam. xxiv. 4.)"

IV. The Jews rose early, about the dawn of day, when they breakfasted. They dined about eleven in the forenoon, and supped at five in the afternoon. From this circumstance of their breakfasting so early, Dr. Lightfoot endeavours to account for the language of the evangelists John (xix. 14.) and Mark (xv. 25.) concerning our Lord's crucifixion. The former notices the time from the preparation of the passover and the latter, the time of the day. The preparation began at the dawn or cock-crowing. From this custom too, the term to rise early denotes diligence, either in doing good or evil. (Eccles. x. 16, 17. Prov. xxxi. 4, 5.)

From the whole of the sacred history, it is evident that the food of the Jews was of the simplest nature, consisting principally of milk, honey, rice, vegetables, and sometimes of locusts, except at the appointed festivals, or when they offered their feast offerings; at these times they ate animal food, of which they appear to have been very fond. (Numb. xi. 4.) The pottage which Jacob had prepared, and which was so tempting to Esau as to make him sell his birthright, shows the simplicity of the ordinary diet of the patriarchs. Isaac in his old age longed for savoury meat, which was accordingly prepared for him (Gen. xxvii. 4. 17.); but this was an unusual thing. The feast with which Abraham entertained the three angels, was a calf, new cakes baked on the hearth, together with butter (ghee) and milk.2 (Gen. xviii. 6, 7.) We may form a correct idea of their ordinary articles of food by the articles which were presented to David on various occasions by Abigail (1 Sam. xxv. 18.), by Ziba (2 Sam. xvi. 1.), and by Barzillai. (2 Sam. xvii. 28, 29.)

The most useful and strengthening, as well as the most common article of food, was doubtless bread. Frequent mention is made of this simple diet in the Holy Scriptures, which do not often mention

1 Mr. Upham's Translation of Jalin's Archeologia Biblica, pp. 194–196. 2 Milk and honey were the chief dainties of the antients, as they still are among the Arabs, and especially the Bedouins. Hence the land of Canaan is described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Exod. iii. 8.

3 Thus, in Gen. xviii. 5, and 1 Sam. xxviii. 22. we read, I will fetch a morsel of BREAD-Gen. xxi. 14. Abraham took BREAD, and a bottle of water, and gave it unto Hagar-Gen. xxxvii. 25. They sat down to EAT BREAD.-Gen. xliii. 31. VOL. III.

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the flesh of animals: though this is sometimes included in the eating of bread, or making a meal, as in Matt. xv. 2. Mark iii. 20. vii. 2. Luke xiv. 1. and John vi. 23. Sometimes the ears were gathered and the grain eaten, before the corn was reaped; sometimes, after it had been threshed and dried, it was eaten without any further preparation. This was called parched corn. But, in general, it was ground into flour, fermented with leaven and made into bread; though on certain occasions, as at the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, they baked unleavened bread. (Exod. xii. 34-39.) The lightest bread, which was made of the finest flour, and was made quickly upon the hearth, they called cakes (Gen. xviii. 6.): the larger and coarser sort were called loaves. (1 Sam. xxi. 3.) The cakes were antiently baked upon the hearth (Gen. xviii. 6.): afterwards, this was done upon the coals, being probably laid upon some grate. (1 Kings xix. 6.) But the Holy Bread was baked in an oven. (Levit. ii. 4.) The fuel, used for this and other culinary purposes, consisted of thorns, wood of all kinds, and in general, as their sure supply, the dung of cows, asses, or camels, dried and collected into heaps (Lam. iv. 5.): grass also was employed for the same purpose. (Matt. vi. 28-30.) The knowledge of this circumstance illustrates Eccles. vii. 6. Psal. lviii. 9. Amos iv. 11. Zech. iii. 2. Isa. vii. 4. and especially Ezek. iv. 12. In order to show the extremity of distress, to which the Jews would be reduced in the captivity, the prophet was to prepare the most common provisions and to bake the bread with human dung. Nothing could paint more strongly a case of extreme necessity than this; and the Jews would so understand this sign.1

Their ordinary beverage was water, which was drawn from the public wells and fountains (John iv. 6, 7.), and which was to be refused to no one. (John vi. 9. Matt. xxv. 35.) The water of the Nile, in Egypt, all modern travellers attest, is singularly delicious as well as extraordinarily wholesome, and is drunk in very large quantities; while that of the few wells, which are found in that country, is not potable, being both unpleasant and insalubrious. When the modern inhabitants depart thence for any time, they speak of nothing but the pleasure they shall find on their return, in drinking the water of the Nile. The knowledge of this circumstance gives a peculiar energy to those words of Moses, when he denounced to Pharaoh, that the waters of the Nile should be turned into blood, even in the very filtering vessels; and that the Egyptians should loathe to drink of the water of the river. (Exod. viii. 17-19.) That is, they should loathe to drink of that water which they used to prefer to all the waters of

Joseph said, Set on BREAD.-Exod. ii. 20. Call him that he may EAT BREAD.— Exod. xvi. 3. We did EAT BREAD to the full.-Deut. ix. 9. I neither did EAT BREAD, nor drink water.-1 Sam. xxviii. 20. Saul had EATEN no BREAD all the day, &c. 1 Boothroyd's Translation of the Bible, vol. i. p. 60.

2 See particularly Belzoni's Researches in Egypt, p. 325. 4to. edit.; Turner's Tour in the Levant, vol. ii. p. 511.; and Dr. Richardson's Travels along the Shore's of the Mediterranean, vol. i. p. 33.

the universe, and so eagerly to long for, and should prefer to drink of well-water, which in their country is so detestable.'

After the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan, they drank wine of different sorts, which was preserved in skins. Red wine seems to have been the most esteemed. (Prov. xxiii. 31. Rev. xiv. 20. xix. 3. 18.) In the time of Solomon, spiced wines were used, mingled with the juice of the pomegranate. (Song viii. 4.) When Judæa was under the dominion of the Romans, medicated wines (as we have seen) were given to those who were to be crucified, in order to blunt the edge of pain, and stun the acuteness of sensibility.3 The strong drink (sHeCeR), mentioned in Levit. x. 9. and many other passages of holy writ, means any kind of fermented liquors, whether prepared from corn, dates, apples, or any other kind of fruits. One of the four prohibited drinks among the Mohammedans, is called sakar, which though it has the same general meaning as the Hebrew word, especially signifies palm wine. The patriarchs, like the modern inhabitants of the East, were accustomed to take their meals under the shade of trees. Thus Abraham stood by the angels under the tree, and they did eat. (Gen. xviii. 4.) The antient Hebrews did not eat indifferently with all persons; they would have been polluted and dishonoured in their own opinion, by eating with people of another religion, or of an odious profession. In Joseph's time, they neither ate with the Egyptians, nor the Egyptians with them (Gen. xliii. 32.); nor in our Saviour's time with the Samaritans (John iv. 9.); and the Jews were scandalised at Jesus Christ's eating with publicans and sinners. (Matt. ix. 11.) As there were several sorts of meats, whose use was prohibited, they could not conveniently eat with those who partook of them, fearing some pollution by touching them, or if by accident any part of them should fall upon them. The antient Hebrews at their meals had each his separate table. When Joseph entertained his brethren in Egypt, he seated each of them at his particular table, and he himself sat down separately from the Egyptians who ate with him: but he sent to his brethren, out of the provisions which were before him. (Gen. xliii. 31. et seq.) Elkanah, Samuel's father, who had two wives, distributed

1 Harmer's Observations, vol. iii. pp. 564-566. See also a Narrative of the Pacha of Egypt's Expedition to Dongola and Sennaar, by an American, pp. 150, 151. (London, 1822, 8vo.)

2 Spiced wines were not peculiar to the Jews. The celebrated Persian poet, Hafiz, speaks of wine-" richly bitter, richly sweet." The Romans lined their vessels (amphora) with odorous gums, to give the wine a warm bitter flavour: and it is said that the Poles and Spaniards adopt a similar method, in order to impart to their wines a favourite relish. (Odes of Hafiz, translated by Nott, P. 30. note.) The juice of the pomegranate tree is often employed in the East, to give a pleasant sub-acid flavour to a variety of beverages and where the laws of the Koran are not allowed to interpose, or their prohibitions are disregarded, a delicious wine is frequently manufactured from this juice alone. Harmer's Observations, vol. ii. pp. 145, 146.

3 See p. 155. of this volume.

4 C. B. Michaelis, Dissertatio Philologica naturalia quædam et artificialia codicis sacri ex Alcorano illustrans. § xii. In Pott's and Ruperti's Sylloge Commentationum Theologicarum, tom. ií. pp. 49, 5

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their portions to them separately. (1 Sam. i. 4, 5.) In Homer, each of the guests has his little table apart; and the master of the feast distributes meat to each. We are assured that this is still practised in China; and many in India never eat out of the same dish, nor on the same table, and they believe they cannot do so without sin; and this, not only in their own country, but when travelling, and in foreign lands.1

The antique manners which we see in Homer, we see likewise in Scripture, with regard to eating, drinking, and entertainments; we find great plenty, but little delicacy; great respect and honour paid to the guests by serving them plentifully. Joseph sent his brother Benjamin a portion five times larger than his other brethren. Samuel set a whole quarter of a calf before Saul. The women did not appear at table in entertainments with the men. This would have been then,

as it is at this day throughout the East, an indecency. Thus Vashti the Queen made a feast for the women in the royal house, which belonged to Ahasuerus (Esther i. 9.), while the Persian monarch was feasting his nobles.

From 1 Sam. xvi. 11. (marginal rendering) and Psal. cxxviii. 3. it should seem that the antient Hebrews sat down round about a mat or low table, cross-legged, in the same manner as is still practised in the East: afterwards, however, they imitated the Persians and Chaldæans, who reclined on table-beds while eating; some traces of which are observable in the Book of Proverbs (xxiii. 1.), in Amos (vi. 4. 7.), Ezekiel (xxiii. 47.), and Tobit (ii. 4.); but this practice was not general. We see expressions in the sacred authors of those times, which prove, that they also sat at table. At Ahasuerus's banquet (Esth. i. 6.), the company lay on beds, and at that which Esther gave the king and Haman. (Esth. vii. 8.) Our Saviour in like manner reclined at table, (as already described in pp. 387, 388.), when Mary Magdalen anointed his feet with perfume (Matt. xxvi. 7.), and when John, at the last supper, rested his head on his bosom. (John xiii. 25.) When the food is of a liquid nature, the Arabs and other people of the East, break their bread or cakes into little pieces (a, or sops), dipping their hands and their morsels therein, as the Israelites did in the time of Ruth and Boaz (Ruth ii. 14.), and the Jews in the time of Christ. (Matt. xxvi. 23. John xiii. 26.)2

The modern Jews, before they sit down to table, after the example of their ancestors, carefully wash their hands. They speak of this ceremony as being essential and obligatory. After meals they wash them again. When they sit down to table, the master of the house, or chief person in the company, taking bread, breaks it, but does not divide it; then putting his hand on it, he recites this blessing; Blessed be thou, O Lord our God, the king of the world, who producest the bread of the earth. Those present answer, Amen. Having distributed the bread among the guests, he takes the vessel of the wine in his

1 See examples in Ward's View of the History, &c. of the Hindoos, vol. ii. p. 315. Renaudot, Notes sur le voyage des deux Arabes à la Chine, pp. 123, 124. 2 Shaw's Travels, vol. i. p. 418. Schleusner's Lexicon, voce wμiov.

right hand, saying, Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, king of the world, who hast produced the fruit of the vine. They then repeat the 23d Psalm. They take care, that after meals there shall be a piece of bread remaining on the table; the master of the house orders a glass to be washed, fills it with wine, and elevating it, says, Let us bless him of whose benefits we have been partaking; the rest answer, Blessed be he, who has heaped his favours on us, and by his goodness has now fed us. Then he recites a pretty long prayer, wherein he thanks God for his many benefits vouchsafed to Israel : beseeches him to pity Jerusalem and his temple, to restore the throne of David, to send Elias and the Messiah, to deliver them out of their long captivity. All present answer, Amen. They recite Psal. xxxiv. 9, 10.; and then after passing the glass with the little wine in it round to those present, he drinks what is left, and the table is cleared.

V. When persons journeyed, they provided themselves with every necessary, as there were no inns for the reception of travellers. Women and rich men frequently travelled on asses or camels, which carried not only their merchandise, but also their household goods and chattels. And it appears that the Jews often travelled in caravans or companies (as the inhabitants of the East do to this day), especially when they went up to Jerusalem at the three great annual festivals. The Psalms of ascensions, or of degrees as they are commonly entitled (cxx.-cxxxiv.), are supposed to haye received this appellation from the circumstance of their being sung by the more devout Jews, when they were ascending or travelling up to the Holy city on these occasions. The company, among which Joseph and Mary supposed Jesus to have been on their return from the passover, when he was twelve years old (Luke ii. 42-44.), was one of these caravans.2

VI. In the East, antiently, as well as in modern times, there were no inns, in which the traveller could meet with refreshment. Shade from the sun, and protection from the plunderers of the night, is all that the caravansaries afford. Hence hospitality was deemed a sacred duty incumbent upon every one. The sacred writings exhibit several instances of hospitality exercised by the patriarchs, and the writings of modern travellers show that similar hospitality still exists in the East.3 Abraham received three angels, invited them, served them himself, and stood in their presence; Sarah his wife took care of the kitchen, and baked bread for his guests. (Gen. xviii. 2, 3. &c.) Lot waited at the city-gate to receive guests. (Gen. xix. 1.) When the inhabitants of Sodom meant to insult his guests, he went out, he spoke to them, he exposed himself to their fury, and offered rather

1 See Buxtorf's Synag. and Leo of Modena, part ii. c. 10.

2 See the various passages of Harmer's Observations, referred to in his Index, article Caravans. Ward's History of the Hindoos, vol. ii. p. 338. Fragments supplementary to Calmet, No. I.

See Light's Travels in Egypt, &c. p. 82.; and Mr. Belzoni's Researches in Egypt, p. 6i.

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