euch cases is not so great but that it may in general be removed, and the proper signification of the passage in question may be determined: for the SUBJECT-MATTER that is, the topic of which the author is treating-plainly shows the. sense which is to be attached to any particular word. For there is a great variety of agents introduced in the Scriptures, whose words and actions are recorded.

Some parts of the Bible are written in a responsive or dialogue form as the twenty-fourth Psalm, Isa. vi. 3. and Rom. iii. 1-9. And the sense of a text is frequently mistaken, by not observing who is the speaker, and what is the specific topic of which he treats; and also by not attending to the frequent and very elegant changes and successions of persons occurring in the Scriptures, and especially in the prophetic writings. One or two examples will illustrate the necessity of considering the subject-matter. metonymy, the flesh beneath the skin; and by a synedoche it denotes every animal, especially man considered as infirm or weak, as in Jer. xvii. 5. Cursed be the man that trusteth in man, and maketh FLESH his arm; there are also several other meanings derived from these, which it is not material now to notice. But that the word flesh is to be understood of man only in Gen. vi. 12. Psal. lxv. 2. and Job x. 4. will be evident on the slightest inspection of the subject-matter. All flesh had corrupted his way-that is, all men had wholly departed from the rule of righteousness, or had made their way of life abominable throughout the world. And, in the Psalm above cited, who can doubt but that by the word flesh men are intended: 0 thou that hearest prayer, unto thee shall all flesh, that is, all mankind, come. In like manner, also, in Job x. 4. it is evident that flesh has the same meaning; if, indeed, the passage were at all obscure, the parallelism would explain it-Kast thou the eyes of a man (Heb. of flesh)? or, seest thou as man sees?

1. The Hebrew word W (Be-SHER) literally signifies the skin; by a

2. The first chapter of the prophecy of Isaiah affords an apposite elucidation of attending to the changes and successions of persons occurring in the Scriptures. Jehovah is there represented as impleading his disobe. dient people, Israel. The prophet, with a boldness and majesty becoming the herald of the Most High, begins with summoning the whole creation to attend when Jehovah speaks. (ver. 2.) A charge of gross insensibility is in the next verse brought against the Jews, whose guilt is amplified (ver. 4); and their obstinate wickedness highly aggravated the chastise ments and judgments of God, though repeated till they had almost been left like Sodom and Gomorrah. (v 5-9.) The incidental mention of these

§3. OF THE SCOPE.

The scope defined.-Importance of investigating the scope of a book or passage of Scripture.-II. Rules for investigating it.

I. A CONSIDERATION of the Scope, or design, which the inspired author of any of the books of Scripture had in view, essentially facilitates the study of the Bible: because, as every writer had some design which he proposed to unfold, and as it is not to be supposed that he would express himself in terms foreign to that design, it therefore is but reasonable to admit that he made use of such words and phrases as were every way suited to his purpose. To be acquainted, therefore, with the scope of an author is to understand the chief part of his book. The scope, it has been well observed, is the soul or spirit of a book; and that being once ascertained, every argument and every word appears in its right place and is perfectly intelligible: but, if the scope be not duly considered, every thing becomes obscure, however clear and obvious its meaning may really be.3

The scope of an author is either general or special; by the former we understand the design which he proposed to himself in writing his book; by the latter we mean that design which he had in view when writing particular sections, or even smaller portions, of his book or treatise.

The means, by which to ascertain the scope of a particular section or passage, being nearly the same with those which must be applied to the investigation of the general scope of a book, we shall briefly consider them together in the following observations.

II. The Scope of a book of Scripture, as well as of any particular section or passage, is to be collected from the writer's express mention of it, from its known occasion, from some conclusion expressly added at the end of an argument; from history, from attention to its general tenor, to the main subject and tendency of the several topics, and to the force of the leading expressions; and especially from repeated, studious, and connected perusals of the book itself.

1. When the scope of a whole book, or of any particular portion of it, is expressly mentioned by the sacred writer, it should be carefully observed.

places leads the prophet to address the rulers and people of the Jews, under the character of the princes of Sodom and Gomorrah, in a style not less spirited and severe, than it is elegant and unexpected. (10.) The vanity of trusting to the performance of the external rites and ceremo nies of religion is then exposed (11-15), and the necessity of repentance and reformation is strongly enjoined (16, 17.), and urged by the most encouraging promises, as well as by the most awful threatenings. (18-20.) But, as neither of these produced the proper effect upon that people, who were the prophet's charge, he bitterly laments their degeneracy (21-23.), and concludes with introducing the Alinighty himself, declaring his purpose of inflicting such heavy judgments as would entirely cut off the wicked, Of all criteria this is the most certain, by which to ascertain the scope and excite in the righteous, who should pass through the furnace, an ever- of a book. Sometimes it is mentioned at its commencement, or towards lasting shame and abhorrence of every thing connected with idolatry, the its close, and sometimes it is intimated in other parts of the saine book, source of all their misery. (24-31.) The whole chapter, in loftiness of rather obscurely, perhaps, yet in such a manner that a diligent and attensentiment, and style. affords a beautiful example of this great prophet's tive reader may readily ascertain it. Thus the scope and end of the whole manner, whose writings, like his lips, are touched with hallowed fire.1 Bible, collectively, is contained in its manifold utility, which St. Paul But it is not merely with reference to the meaning of par- expressly states in 2 Tim. iii. 16, 17. and also in Rom. xv. 4. In like manner, the royal author of Ecclesiastes announces pretty clearly, at the ticular passages that a consideration of the subject-matter beginning of his book, the subject he intends to discuss, viz. to show that becomes necessary to the right understanding of Scripture. all human affairs are vain, uncertain, frail, and imperfect; and, such being It is further of the greatest importance in order to comprehend which he taketh under the sun? (Eccl. i. 2, 3.) And towards the close of the case, he proceeds to inquire, What profit hath a man of all his labour the various dispensations of God to man, which are contained the same book (ch. xii. 8.) he repeats the saine subject, the truth of which in the sacred writings. For although the Bible comprises he had proved by experience. So, in the commencement of the book of a great number of books, written at different times, yet they Proverbs of Solomon, the Son of David king of Israel;-to know wisdom Proverbs, Solomon distinctly announces their scope. (ch. i. 1-4. 6.)—“ The have a mutual connection with each other, and refer, in the and instruction, to perceive the words of understanding: to receive the Old Testament, with various but progressively increasing instruction of wisdom, justice, judgment, and equity; to give subtilty to degrees of light and clearness, to a future Saviour, and in the the simple, to the young man knowledge and discretion; to understand a New Testament to a present Saviour. With reference, there-sayings." -Saint John, also, towards the close of his gospel, announces proverb, and the interpretation; the words of the wise, and their dark fore, to the several divine dispensations to man, the subject- his object in writing it to be, "That ye might believe that Jesus is the matter of the whole Bible ought to be attentively considered: Christ, the Son of God; and that, believing, ye might have life through but, as each individual book embraces a particular subject, it recorded almost exclusively by this evangelist and apostle, are to be read will also be requisite carefully to weigh its subject-matter, and considered with reference to this particular design: and, if this cirin order to comprehend the design of the author. An analysis cumstance be kept in view, they will derive much additional force and beauty. of each book will materially assist a reader of the Scriptures Of the application of this rule to the illustration of a particular section, in forming a comprehensive view not only of its chief subject-or the ascertaining of a special scope, the seventh chapter of Saint Paul's matter, but will also show the methodical and orderly first epistle to the Corinthians will supply an example.-In that chapter, the coherence of all the parts of the book with one another. replying to the queries which had been proposed to him by the Corinthian object of which is to show that it was not good to marry, the apostle is Such an analysis the author has attempted in the second converts; and it is evident that his reply is continued through the whole volume of this work. "Books," says an old writer, "looked chapter. But did he mean to insinuate absolutely that matrimony in itself was not good? By no means: on the contrary, it is clear from the scope upon confusedly, are but darkly and confusedly apprehended: of this section, given by Saint Paul in express words, that his design was but considered distinctly, as in these distinct analyses or not, in general, to prefer a state of celibacy to that of marriage: much less resolutions into their principal parts, must needs be distinctly and much more clearly discerned."2

1 Bp. Lowth's Isaiah, vol. ii. pp. 4-27. 8vo. edit. Vitringa, in his comment on the same prophet, eminently excels in pointing out the rapid transitions of persons, places, and things. Van Til, in his celebrated Opus Analyti. eum, has ably noticed various similar transitions in the Scriptures generally, and in the Psalms in particular, though in the last-mentioned book he has sometimes unnecessarily multiplied the speakers introduced. The value of Dr. Macknight's version and paraphrase of the Epistle to the Romans is enhanced by his distinguishing between the objections brought by the Jews whom St. Paul introduces as arguing with him, and the replies and conclusive reasonings of the apostle. Roberts's Key to the Bible, pp. (11.) (12.) folio edit. 1665. See also Rambachii Institutiones Hermeneuticæ Sacræ, pp. 108-110. and Chlade. nius's Institutiones Exegeticæ, pp. 532. et seq.

his name." Therefore, all those discourses of our Lord, which are

"How unfair, how irrational, how arbitrary, is the mode of interpretation which many apply to the word of God? They insulate a passage; they fix on a sentence; they detach it from the paragraph to which it belongs, and explain it in a sense dictated only by the combination of the syllables or the words, in themselves considered. If the word of God be thus dissected or tortured, what language may it not seem to speak, what sentiments may it not appear to countenance, what fancy may it not be made to gratify? But would such a inode of interpretation be tolerated by any living author? Would such a method be endured in commenting on any of the admired productions of classical antiquity? Yet in this case it would be comparatively harmless, although utterly indefensible: but who can calculate the amount of injury which may be sustained by the cause of revealed truth, if its pure streams be thus defiled, and if it be contaminated even at the very fountain head?" Rev. H. F. Burder's Sermon on the Duty and Means of ascertaining the Genuine Sense of the Scriptures, p. 21.

was it to teach that the living unmarried was either more holy or more acceptable to God; or that those who vow to lead a single life shall certainly obtain eternal salvation, as the church of Rome erroneously teaches from this place. But we perceive that he answered the question proposed to him with reference to the then existing circumstances of the Christian church. The apostle thought that a single life was preferable on account of the present distress-that is, the sufferings to which they were then liable. The persecutions to which they were exposed, when they came upon them, would be more grievous and afflictive to such as had a wife and children who were dear to them, than to those who were single: and, therefore, under such circumstances, the apostle recommends celibacy to those who had the gift of living chastely without inarriage.

2. The scope of the sacred writer may be ascertained from

the known occasion on which his book was written.

But in this investigation of the scope, there is not always that clearness which leads to a certain interpretation: for sometimes there are several interpretations which sufficiently agree with the writer's design. In those places, for instance, where the coming of Christ is mentioned, it is not always determined whether it is his last advent to judge the world, or his coming to inflict punishment on the unbelieving Jews. In such cases, the interpreter must be content with some degree of probability. There are, however, two or three cautions, in the consideration of the scope, to which it will be desirable to attend.

1. Where, of two explanations, one is evidently contrary to the series of the discourse, the other must necessarily be preferred.

Thus in the time of the apostles, there were many who disseminated errors, and defended Judaism: hence it became necessary that the apostles should frequently write against these errors, and oppose the defenders of Judaism. Such was the occasion of Saint Peter's second epistle: and this circumstance will also afford a key by which to ascertain the scope of many of the other epistolary writings. Of the same description also were many of the parables delivered by Jesus Christ. When any question was proposed to him, or he was reproached for holding intercourse with publi In Psal. xlii. 2. the royal psalmist pathetically exclaims-When shall I cans and sinners, he availed himself of the occasion to reply, or to defend come and appear before God?-This verse has, by some writers, been ex himself by a parable. Sometimes, also, when his disciples laboured under pounded thus; that a man may wish for death, in order that he may the any mistakes, he kindly corrected their erroneous notions by parables. sooner enjoy that state of future blessedness which is sometimes intended The inscriptions prefixed to many of the Psalms, though some of them by the phrase seeing God. Now this exposition is manifestly contrary to are evidently spurious, and consequently to be rejected, frequently indicate the design of the Psalm; in which David, exiled from Jerusalem, and conthe occasion on which they were composed, and thus reflect considerable sequently from the house of God, through Absalom's unnatural rebellion, light upon their scope. Thus the scope of the 18th, 34th, and 3d Psalins is expresses his fervent desire of returning to Jerusalem, and beholding that illustrated from their respective inscriptions, which distinctly assert upon happy day, when he should again present himself before God in his boly what occasions they were composed by David. In like manner, many of tabernacle. In the fourth verse he mentious the sacred pleasure with the prophecies, which would otherwise be obscure, become perfectly clear which he had gone (or would repair, for some of the versions render the when we understand the circumstances on account of which the predic-verb in the future tense) with the multitude to the house of God. There is, therefore, in this second sense a necessary and evident connection with the scope and series of the discourse.

tions were uttered.

3. The express conclusion, added by the writer at the end temple of God, him shall God destroy. The phrase temple of God, in this of an argument, demonstrates its general scope.

In 1 Cor. iii. 17. we read, If any man defile (more correctly destroy) the passage, is usually interpreted of the human body, and by its defilement is responding punishment on the libidinous man. This sense is certainly a good one, and is confirmed by a similar expression at the close of the sixth chapter. But, in the former part of the third chapter, the apostle had been giving the teachers of the Corinthian Christians an important caution to teach pure and salutary doctrines, together with that momentous doctrine Christ (v. 11.)-and that they should not add false doctrines to it. After Other foundation can no man lay than that is laid, which is Jesut largely discussing this topic, he subsequently returns to it, and the passage above cited occurs intermediately. From this view of the scope it will be evident that by the temple of God is to be understood the Christian church; which, if any man defile, corrupt, or destroy, by disseminating false doctrines, God will destroy him also.

Thus, in Rom. iii. 28. after a long discussion, Saint Paul adds this conclu-understood libidinous unchastity, which God will destroy by inflicting corsion:-Therefore we conclude, that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law: Hence we perceive with what design the whole passage was written, and to which all the rest is to be referred. The conclusions interspersed through the epistles may easily be ascertained by means of the particles, "wherefore," "seeing that," "therefore," "then," &c. as well as by the circumstances directly mentioned or referred to. The principal conclusions, however, must be separated from those which are of compara tively less importance, and subordinate to the former. Thus in the epistle to Philemon, our attention must chiefly be directed to verses 8. and 17., whence we collect that Saint Paul's design or scope was to reconcile Onesi mus (who had been a runaway slave) to his master, and to restore him to the latter, a better person than he had before been. In the Epistle to the Ephesians, the principal conclusions are, ch. ii. 11, 12, and ch. iv. 1. 3. The subordinate or less principal conclusions are ch. i. 15. iii. 13. iv. 17. 25. v. 1. 7. 15. 17. and vi. 13, 14.

4. A knowledge of the time when a book was written, and also of the state of the church at that time, will indicate the scope or intention of the author in writing such book.

passages.

For instance, we learn from history, that during the time of the apostles there were numerous errors disseminated; and therefore they wrote many passages in their epistles with the express design of refuting such errors. An acquaintance with these historical particulars will enable us to determine with accuracy the scope of entire books as well as of detached Thus, the epistle of Saint James was written about the year of Christ 61, at which time the Christians were suffering persecution, and probably (as appears from ch. ii. 6. and ch. v. 6.) not long before the apostle's martyr dom; which Bp. Pearson thinks,2 happened A. D. 62, in the eighth year of Nero's reign, when the destruction of the Jewish temple and polity was impending. (James v. 1. 8.) At the period referred to, there were in the church certain professing Christians, who in consequence of the sanguinary persecution then carried on against them both by Jews and Gentiles, were not only declining in faith and love, and indulging various sinful prac tices for instance, undue respect of persons (chapter ii. verse 1. et seq.); contempt of their poor brethren (chapter ii. verse 9. et seq.); and unbri dled freedom of speech (chapter iii. verse 3. et seq.); but who also most shamefully abused to licentiousness the grace of God, which in the Gospel is promised to the penitent; and, disregarding holiness, boasted of a faith destitute of its appropriate fruits, viz. of a bare assent to the doctrines of the Gospel; and boldly affirmed that this inoperative and dead faith was alone sufficient to obtain salvation. (chapter ii. verse 17. et seq.) Hence we may easily perceive, that the apostle's scope was not to treat of the doctrine of justification; but, the state of the church requiring it, to correct those errors in doctrine, and those sinful practices, which had crept into the church, and particularly to expose that fundamental error of a dead faith unproductive of good works. This observation further shows the true way of reconciling the supposed contradiction between the apostles Paul and James, concerning the doctrine of salvation by faith.3

2. Where a parallel passage plainly shows that another pas sage is to be understood in one particular sense, this must be adopted, to the exclusion of every other sense, although it should be supported by the grammatical interpretation as well as by the scope.

Thus, in Matt. v. 25. we read-“Agree with thine adversary quickly, rhilst thou art in the way with him; lest at any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and the judge deliver thee to the officer, and the be cast into prison." This passage has been interpreted to refer either to a future state of existence, or to the present life. In the former sense, the adversary is God; the judge, Christ; the officer, death; and the prison, hell and eternal punishinents. In the latter sense, the ineaning of this pes sage simply is, "If thou hast a lawsuit, compromise it with the plaint f and thus prevent the necessity of prosecuting it before a judge: but if thou art headstrong, and wilt not compromise the affair, when it comes to be argued before the judge, he will be severe, and will decree that thou shalt pay the uttermost farthing." Now, both these expositions yield good senses, agreeing with the scope, and both contain a cogent argument that we should be easily appeased: but if we compare the parallel passage in Luke xii. 58, 59, we shall find the case thus stated:- When thou goes! with thine adversary to the magistrate, as thou art in the way, give diligence that thou mayest be delivered from him, lest he hale thee to the judge, and the judge deliver thee to the officer (* #parop, whose duty it was to levy fines imposed for the violation of the law); and the officer on non-payment cast thee into prison. I tell thee thou shalt not depart thence till thou hast paid the very last mite.-In this passage there is no reference whatever to a future state, nor to any punishments which will hereafter be inflicted on the implacable: and thus a single parallel text shows which of the two senses best agrees with the scope of the discourse, and consequently which of them is preferably to be adopted.

5. If, however, none of these subsidiary aids present them-I. selves, it only remains that we REPEATEDLY AND DILIGENTLY STUDY THE ENTIRE BOOK, AS WELL AS THE WHOLE SUBJECT, AND CAREFULLLY ASCERTAIN THE SCOPE FROM THEM, before we attempt an examination of any particular text.

Thus we shall be enabled to understand the mind of its author, and to

ascertain the main subject and tendency of the book or epistle which may be under consideration: or, if it have several views and purposes in it, not mutually dependent upon each other, nor in subordination to one chief end, we shall be enabled to discover what those different matters were, as

4. ANALOGY OF LANGUAGES.

Analogy of languages defined.—Its different kinds.—II. Use of grammatical analogy.-III. Analogy of kindred languages.—IV. Hints for consulting this analogy in the interpretation of Scripture.-V. Foundation of analogy in all languages.

I. ANALOGY of languages is an important aid in enabling us to judge of the signification of words.

Analogy means similitude. For instance, from the meaning Baner, Herm. Sacr. pp. 201-204. J. B. Carpzov. Herm. Sacr. pp. 3335. Ernesti, Institutio Interp. Nov. Test. pp. 61, 62. Mori Acroases in Franckii Manuductio, cap. iii. pp. 87, 88. 292. or English edition, pp. 61. Ernesti, tom. i. pp. 150-160. Franckii Prælect. Herm. pp. 29-61. Franckii et seq. 177. et seq. Franckii Prælect. Herm. pp. 38. et seq. Commentatio de Scopo Veteris et Novi Testamenti, Halae, 1724 8vo. Jahnil Annales Paulinæ, p. 31. Enchiridion, pp. 69-71. Rambach, Inst. Herm. pp. 145-197. 234. 238-240.

Jo. Henr. Michaelis Introductio Historico-Theologica in Jacobi Minoris Chladenii Instit. Exeget. pp. 375-387. J. E. Pfeifferi, Inst. Herm. Sacr. pp. Epistolam Catholicam, §§ viii. xi.

147-151. 267-276. Schæfer, Institutiones Scripturisticæ, pars ii. pp. 62-68.

attached to the forms of words, their position, connection, | &c. in one, or rather in many cases, we agree to establish a similarity of meaning, where the phenomena are the same, in another. This analogy is the foundation of all the rules of grammar, and of all that is established and intelligible in language. The analogy of languages is of different kinds, viz. 1. the Analogy of any particular Language (that is, of the same language with that which is to be interpreted), the principles of which are developed by grammarians. This kind of analogy has been termed Grammatical Analogy. 2. The Analogy of kindred Languages.1

II. USE OF GRAMMATICAL ANALOGY. Grammatical analogy is not only useful in finding the usus loquendi, but is also applicable to some doubtful cases; for instance, when the kind of meaning, generally considered, is evident (by comparing other similar words, and methods of speaking concerning such things, appropriate to the language), we may judge of the especial force or power of the word, by the aid of grammatical analogy.

1. In Col. ii. 23. occurs the word, in our version rendered will-worship. As there is no example of this word, its meaning must be sought from analogy by ascertaining the import of words compounded with 9. Of this description of words there are many examples. Thus, vos is one who takes upon him voluntarily to afford hospitality to strangers, in the name of a city: cuxos is one who offers himself to voluntary servitude: cupos is one who labours of his own free will. From this analogy, we may collect that gonuz, in Col. ii. 23., means an affected or superstitious zeal for religion; which signification is confirmed by the argument of the apostle's dis

course.

2. In 1 Pet. v. 5. where many critics have attached an emphatic sense to eqμbaraobu, we must compare the other Greek phrases which relate to clothing or investing; and thus we shall see that the prepositions, up, and w, are used in composition without any accession of meaning to the verb thereby; for instance, iμativ epibenne, aμpibenne, or qubav, simply means to put on a garment. Consequently, means no more than dura, with which it is commuted by Clemens Romanus. The meaning, therefore, of the apostle Peter's expression -be clothed with humility—is to exhibit a modest behaviour. III. ANALOGY of KINDRED LANGUAGES. Another analogy is that of KINDRED LANGUAGES, either as descended from one common stock, as the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, and Arabic; or derived the one from the other, as Latin and Greek.

IV. In consulting the cognate languages, however, much care and attention are requisite, lest we should be led away by any verbal or literal resemblance that may strike the mind, and above all by mere etymologies, which, though in some instances they may be advantageously referred to, are often uncertain guides. The resemblance or analogy must be a real one. We must, therefore, compare not only similar words and phrases, but also similar modes of speech, which, though perhaps differing as to the etymology of the words, are yet evidently employed to designate the same idea. The following examples will illustrate this remark:

1. In 1 Cor. iii. 15. St. Paul, speaking of certain Christian teachers at Corinth, observes, that "if any man's work shall be burnt, he shall suffer loss, but he himself shall be saved; yet so as by fire." On this passage, by a forced and erroneous construction, has the church of Rome erected the doctrine of purga. tory, a place in which she pretends that the just, who depart out of this life, expiate certain offences that do not merit eternal damnation. Let us, however, consider the subject-matter of the apostle's discourse in his Epistle to the Corinthians. Reflecting on the divisions which were among them, and on that diversity of teachers who formed them into different parties, he compares these to various builders; some of whom raised an edifice upon the only foundation, Jesus Christ, composed of gold, silver, and precious stones; in other words, who preached the pure, vital, and uncorrupted doctrines of the Gospel; while others, upon the same foundation, built wood, hay, stubble, that is, disseminated false, vain, and corrupt doctrines. Of both these structures, he says (v. 13.), Every man's work shall be made manifest; for the day shall declare it, because it shall be revealed by fire; and the fire shall try (rather prove) every man's work of what sort it is either the day of the heavy trial of persecution, or rather the final judgment of God, shall try every man's work. search it as thoroughly as fire does things that are put into it. Then, adds the apostle, if any man's work abide which he hath built thereupon, if the doctrines he hath taught bear the test, as silver, gold, and precious stones abide in the fire, he shall receive a reward. But if any man's work shall be burnt, if, on that trial, it be found that he has introduced false or unsound doctrines, he shall be like a man, whose building, being of wood, hay, and stubble, is consumed by the fire; all his pains in building are lost, and his works destroyed and gone. But (rather yet) if he be upon the whole a good man, who hath built upon Christ as the foundation, and on the terms of the Gospel committed himself to him, he himself shall be saved; yet so as by fire, s dix upes, that is, not without extreme hazard Besides the critical use to which the Cognate or Kindred and difficulty, as a man is preserved from the flames of his house Languages may be applied, they afford very considerable when he escapes naked through them, and thus narrowly saves assistance in interpreting the Sacred Writings. They confirm his life, though with the loss of all his property. This exby their own authority a Hebrew form of speech, already pression is proverbial concerning persons who escape with great known to us from some other source: they supply the defi- hazard out of imminent danger; and similar expressions are to be ciencies of the Hebrew language, and make us fully ac- found in the Old Testament, as in Amos iv. 11.8 and Zech. iii. quainted with the force and meaning of obscure words and 2., and also in the Epistle of Jude, ver. 23. Now, let this phrase phrases, of which we must otherwise remain ignorant, by be compared with the Latin words ambustus and semiustus. restoring the lost roots of words, as well as the primary and Livy, speaking of Lucius Æmilius Paulus, says, that he had secondary meaning of such roots; by illustrating words, the very narrowly escaped being sentenced to punishment, prope meaning of which has hitherto been uncertain, and by un-ambustus evaserat (lib. xxii. c. 35.); and again (c. 40.) the folding the meanings of other words that are of less frequent consul is represented as saying that he had, in his former occurrence, or are only once found in the Scriptures. Fur- consulate, escaped the flames of the popular rage not without ther, the cognate languages are the most successful, if not the being scorched, se populare incendium semiustum evasisse.? only means of leading us to understand the meaning of phrases, or idiomatical combinations of words found in the Bible, and the meaning of which cannot be determined by it, but which, being agreeable to the genius of the original languages, are preserved in books written in them. Schultens, in his Origines Hebrææ, has illustrated a great number of passages from the Arabic, from whose work Bauers and Dr. Gerard has given many examples which do not admit of abridgment. Schleusner has also availed himself of the cognate dialects to illustrate many important passages of the New Testament. Of the various modern commentators on the Bible, no one perhaps has more successfully applied the kindred languages to its interpretation than Dr. Ådam Clarke.

rials, that is, the persons, of which the church of God is composed, rather Some writers have imagined that the apostle is speaking of the matethan of the ministers of the Gospel, whom he represents as architects in the heavenly building. On a repeated consideration of the verses in quesof the subject he is supported by Mr. Locke, Dr. Doddridge, and other eminent critics.

tion, the author is satisfied that the latter are intended: and in this view

of speaking obtained among the Greeks, xx supos, or, in 203 204 Grotius, in his note on this passage, has remarked that a similar mode but he has not cited any examples. Palairet cites the following passage from one of the orations of Aristides; who, speaking of Apelles, says that the gods saved him out of the midst of the fire, EX MEZOY HYPOZ TOV *p* ZEIN, Observationes Philologico-Critica in Nov. Test. p. 386 Some additional instances are given in Elsner's Observationes Sacræ in Novi Fœderis Libros, vol. ii. p. 78. See Bishop Porteus's Brief Confutation of the Errors of the Church of Rome, pp. 48, 49. 12mo. London, 1796; and Bishop Tomline's Elements of Christian Theology, vol. ii. pp. 347-351.; Drs. Whitby, Macknight, and A. Clarke, on 1 Cor. iii. 15.

Cicero (Orat. pro Milone, c. 5.) has the following passage:-"Declarant hujus ambusti tribuni plebis illæ intermortuæ conciones, quibus quotidie meam potentiam invidiose criminabatur" (tom. vi. p. 91. edit. Bipont.); and in his second pleading against Verres, the following sentence, which is still more fully in point:-"Sic iste (Verres) multo sceleratior et nequior, cives Romani ferre non potuerant, Uticæ domi suæ vivus exustus est; quam ille Hadrianus, aliquanto etiam felicior fuit. Ille quòd ejus avaritiam idque ita illi merito accidisse existimatum est, ut lætaruntur omnes neque ulla animadversio constitueretur: hic sociorum ambustus incendio, tamen ex illa flamma periculoque evolavit," &c. (Cont. Verr. Action ii. lib. 1. c. 27. tom. iii. p. 265.)

Here, also, though there is no verbal resemblance between the expression of Saint Paul and those of the Roman historian, yet the real analogy is very striking, and shows that the apostle employed a well known proverbial expression, referring solely to a narrow escape from difficulty, and not, as the Romanists erroneously assert, to the fire of purgatory, a doctrine which is justly characterized as "a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the word of God."1

3. Guard against drawing conclusions as to the meaning of words, in the same or different languages, from fanciful etymology, similarity cr metathesis of letters, &c.

4. When the sense of words can be ascertained in any particular language, by the ordinary means, other languages, even kindred ones, should not be resorted to, except for the purpose of increased illustration or confirmation. 5. Take good care that real similitude exists whenever comparison is made.'

2. The sentence in Gen. xlix., nor a lawgiver from between his feet, has greatly exercised the ingenuity of commentators. It is at present considered as equivalent to a teacher from his offspring. But, without altogether rejecting this interpretation, we may derive some light on the venerable patriarch's meaning I. from the Greek writers, among whom the expression of Moses occurs in the very same terms. Thus in the age of Plato we have και των ποδών αποχωρησομεν. In other writers the expression is m medov, or ex rodov gavou, which is equivalent to e medio discedere, e medio evadere, e conspectu abire, that is, to disappear. The general meaning of Moses, therefore, may be, that a native lawgiver, or expounder of the law, teacher, or scribe (intimating the ecclesiastical polity of the Jews), should not be wanting to that people, until Shiloh, or the Messiah, come. How accurately this prediction has been accomplished it is not necessary to show in this place.

3. In Matt. viii. 20. we read that Christ had not where to lay his head: which expression has been interpreted as meaning that he had literally no home of his own. But considerable light is thrown upon it by two passages from the Arabic History of Abulpharagius; in the first of which, having stated that Saladin had animated his soldiers to the storming of Tyre, he says, that no place now remained to the Franks, WHERE THEY COULD LAY THEIR HEAD, except Tyre; and again, after relating that the Arabs had stormed Acca, or Ptolemais, he says that NO PLACE WAS LEFT TO THE FRANKS, on the coast of this (the Mediterranean) Sea, WHERE THEY COULD LAY THEIR HEAD. From these two passages it is evident that the evangelist's meaning is, that Jesus Christ had no secure and fixed place of residence.

V. FOUNDATION OF ANALOGY IN ALL LANGUAGES. "No one can doubt that men are affected in nearly the same way, by objects of sense. Hence, those who speak of the same objects, perceived and contemplated in the same manner, although they may use language that differs in respect to etymology, yet must be supposed to have meant the same thing; and on this account the one may be explained by the other.

"Men are physically and mentally affected in the same manner, by very many objects; and, of course, it may be presumed that they entertain and, mean to express the same ideas concerning these objects, however various their language may be. Besides, modes of expression are often communicated from one people to another.

"In general, this principle is of great extent, and of much use to the interpreter, in judging of the meaning of tropical language, and in avoiding fictitious emphasis. Accordingly, we find it resorted to, now and then, by good interpreters, with great profit. But it needs much and accurate knowledge of many tongues to use it discreetly; whence it is not to be wondered at, that its use is not very common among interpreters."4

The following general cautions, on the subject of comparing words and languages with each other, may be of some utility they are abridged from Dr. H. C. A. Eichstädt's notes to Morus's Acroases Academicæ.

:

1. The meaning in each or any language is not to be resolved into the authority of Lexicons, but that of good

writers.

1 Article xxii. of the Anglican church. The antiscriptural doctrine of purgatory is copiously and ably exposed by Dr. Fletcher in his "Lectures on the Principles and Institutions of the Roman Catholic Religion" (pp. 236-250.); and more concisely, but with great force of argument, in the Rev. Geo. Hamilton's "Tracts upon some leading Errors of the Church of Rome" (London, 1825), pp. 73-81.

2 Mori Acroases in Ernesti Instit. Interp. Nov. Test. vol. i. p. 181. Abulpharagii Historia, pp. 406, 591. cited by Ammon, in his notes on Ernesti's Instit. Interp. Nov. Test. pp. 67, 68.

• Stuart's Elements, p. 53.

5. OF THE ANALOGY OF FAITH.

The Analogy of Faith defined, and illustrated.—II. Its im portance in studying the Sacred Writings.-III. Rules for investigating the Analogy of Faith.

I. Or all the various aids that can be employed for investigating and ascertaining the sense of Scripture, the ANALOGY OF FAITH is one of the most important. We may define it to be the constant and perpetual harmony of Scripture in the fundamental points of faith and practice, deduced from those passages, in which they are discussed by the inspired penmen, either directly or expressly, and in clear, plain, and intelligible language. Or, more briefly, the analogy of faith may be defined to be that proportion which the doctrines of the Gospel bear to each other, or the close connection between the truths of Revealed Religion.

The Analogy of Faith is an expression borrowed from Saint Paul's Epistle to the Romans (xii. 6.), where he exhorts those who prophesy in the church (that is, those who exercise the office of authoritatively expounding the Scriptures), to prophesy according to the proportion, or, as the word is in the original, the analogy of faith. To the same effect many commentators interpret Saint Peter's maxim (2 Pet. i. 20.), that no prophecy of Scripture is of any private or self-interpre tation; implying that the sense of any prophecy is not to be determined by any abstract consideration of the passage itself, but by taking it in conjunction with other portions of Scripture relating to the subject,"comparing things spiritual with spiritual" (1 Cor. ii. 13.);—a rule which, though it be especially applicable to the prophetic writings, is also of general importance in the exposition of the sacred volume.

II. It is evident that God does not act without a design in the system of religion taught in the Gospel, any more than he does in the works of nature. Now this design must be uniform for as in the system of the universe every part is proportioned to the whole, and is made subservient to it, so, in the system of the Gospel, all the various truths, doctrines, declarations, precepts, and promises, must correspond with and tend to the end designed. For instance, if any one interpret those texts of Scripture, which maintain our justification by faith only, or our salvation by free grace, in such a sense as to exclude the necessity of good works, this interpretation is to be rejected, because it contradicts the main design of Christianity, which is to save us from our sins (Matt. i. 21.), to make us holy as God is holy (1 Pet. i. 15.), and to cleanse us from all filthiness both of flesh and spirit. (2 Cor. vii. 1.) In the application, however, of the analogy of faith to the interpretation of the Scriptures, it is indispensably necessary that the inquirer previously understand the whole scheme of divine revelation; and that he do not entertain a predilection for a part only; without attention to this, he will be liable to error. If we come to the Scriptures with any preconceived opinions, and are more desirous to put that sense upon the text which coincides with our own sentiments rather than the truth, it then becomes the analogy of our faith rather than that of the whole system. This, Dr. Campbell remarks, was the very source of the blindness of the Jews in our Saviour's time: they searched the Scriptures very assiduously; but, in the disposition they entertained, they would never believe what that sacred volume testifies of Christ. The reason is obvious; their great rule of interpretation was the analogy of faith, or, in other words, the system of the Pharisean

Mori Acroases, tom. i. pp. 160. 184. Ernesti Institutio Interpretis Nov. Test. pp. 65-70, and his Opera Philologica, pp. 171. et seq. and 277. Stuart's Elements, p. 53. The subject of the Analogy of Languages is also discussed at considerable length by G. G. Zemisch in his Disputatio Philologica de Analogia Linguarum Interpretationis Subsidio (Lipsiæ, 1758, 4to.), reprinted in Pott's and Ruperti's Sylloge Commentationum Theologicarum, vol. vii. pp. 185-221.

Bishop Vanmildert's Bampton Lect. p. 181. Pfeiffer, Herm. Sacr. c. xii. (Op. t. ii. p. 659.) Carpzov. Prim. Lin. Herm. Sacr. p. 28.

was applied to those whose recovery was expected, as appears from verse 16., where it is said that the Lord in answer to the prayer of faith shall raise up and restore the sick whereas in the Ronish church, extreme unction is used where there is little or no hope of recovery, and is called the sacrament of the dying. The same remark is applicable to the popish ported by James v. 16, and 1 John i. 9. neither of which passages has any system of auricular confession to a priest; which is attempted to be sup. reference whatever to the ministerial office. In the former, confession of our faults is represented as the duty of the faithful to each other; and in the latter, as the duty of the penitent to God alone.

3. The WHOLE system of revelation must be explained, so as to be consistent with itself.—When two passages APPEAR 10 be contradictory, if the sense of the one can be clearly ascer tained, in such case that must regulate our interpretation of the other.

Scribes, the doctrine then in vogue, and in the profound veneration of which they had been educated. This is that veil by which the understandings of the Jews were darkened, even in reading the law, and of which Saint Paul observed that it remained unremoved in his day; and we cannot but remark that it remains unremoved in our own time. There is, perhaps, scarcely a sect or denomination of Christians, whether of the Greek, Romish, or Protestant churches, but has some particular system or digest of tenets, by them termed the analogy of faith, which they individually hold in the greatest reverence; and all whose doctrines terminate in some assumed position, so that its partizans may not contradict themselves. When persons of this description, it has been well remarked, meet with passages in Scripture which Thus, in one passage, the apostle John says; If we say that we have no they cannot readily explain, consistently with their hypothesins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins: if we say we have sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. If we confess our sis, they strive to solve the difficulty by the analogy of faith not sinned, we make him a liar, and his word is not in us. (1 John i. 8-10.) which they have themselves invented. But allowing all In another passage, the same apostle affirms: Whosoever abideth in him, their assumptions to be founded in truth, it is by no means Whosoever is born of God, doth not commit sin: for his seed remaineth in him: and he cannot sin because he is born of God. (1 John consonant with the principles of sound divinity, to interpret. 6. 9.) This is an apparent contradiction; but the texts must be exScripture by the hypothesis of a church; because the sacred plained, so as to agree with one another. Now, from Scripture and experecords are the only proper media of ascertaining theological rience, we are certain that the first passage must be literally understood. At the dedication of the temple, Solomon said; If they sin against thee, and thou be angry (for there is no man that sinneth not), 1 Kings viii. 46. And in Eccl. vii. 20. For there is not a just man upon the earth, that doeth good and sinneth not. The explanation of the second passage, therefore, inust be regulated by the established signification of the first; that both may agree. When it is affirmed that even good men cannot say they have no sin, the apostle speaks of occasional acts, from which none are free. When Saint John says, that he who is born of God doth not commit sin, he evidently means, habitually, as the slave of sin; and this is incompati ble with a state of grace. Both passages, therefore, agree, as the one refers to particular deeds, and the other to general practice; and in this manner inust every seeming contradiction be removed. The passage, of which the literal sense can be established, must always regulate the interpretation of a different expression, so as to make it agree with fixed principles.

truth.2

III Such, then, being the importance of attending to the analogy of faith, it remains to state a few observations which may enable the student to apply it to the clearing up of obscure or difficult passages of Scripture.

1. Wherever any doctrine is manifest, either from the whole tenor of divine revelation or from its scope, it must not be weakened or set aside by a few obscure passages.

sinneth not.

4. An obscure, doubtful, ambiguous, or · figurative text must never be interpreted in such a sense as to make it contradict a plain one.

In explaining the Scriptures, consistency of sense and principles ought to be supported in all their several parts; and if any one part be so interpreted as to clash with another, such interpretation cannot be justified. Nor can it be otherwise corrected than by considering every doubtful or difficult text, first by itself, then with its context, and then by comparing it with other passages of Scripture; and thus bringing what may seem obscure into a consistency with what is plain and evident.

As the observance of this canon is necessary to every student of the inspired volume, so it ought especially to be regarded by those who are apt to interpret passages, which are not of themselves plain, by those opinions, of the belief of which they are already possessed; but for which they have little ground besides the mere sound of some texts, that appear, when first heard, to be favourable to their preconceived notions. Whereas, if such texts were compared with the scope of the sacred writers, they would be found to bear quite a different meaning. For instance, no truth is asserted more frequently in the Bible, and consequently is more certain in religion, than that God is good, not only to some individuals, but also toward all men. Thus, David says (Psal. cxlv. 9.), The Lord is good to ALL, and his tender mercies are over ALL his works; and Ezekiel (xviii. 23.), Have I any pleasure at all in the wicked that he should die; saith the Lord: and not that he should turn from his ways and live? Frequently also does the Almighty declare, both in the books of the law as well as in the prophets, and also in the New Testament, how earnestly he desires the sinner's return to him. See, among other passages, Deut. v. 29. Ezek. xviii. 32. and xxxiii. 11. Matt. xxiii. 37. John iii. 16. 1 Tim. ii. 4. Titus ii. 11. and 2 Pet. iii. 9. If therefore, any passage occur which at first sight appear to contradict the goodness of God, as, for instance, that He has created some persons that he might damn them (as some have insinuated); in such case the very clear and certain doctrine relative to the goodness of God is not to be impugned, much less set aside, by these obscure places, which, on the contrary, ought to be illustrated by such passages as are more clear. Thus, in Prov. xvi. 4. according to most modern versions, we read, that The Lord hath made all things for himself, yea even the wicked for the day of evil. This passage has, by several eminent writers, been supposed to refer to the predestination of the elect and the reprobation of the wicked, but without any foundation. Junius, Cocceius, Michaelis, Glassius, Pfeiffer, Turretin, Östervald, Dr. Whitby, Dr. S. Clarke, and other critics, have shown that this verse may be more correctly rendered, The Lord hath made all things to answer to themselves, or aptly to refer to one another, yea even the wicked, for the evil day, that is, to be the executioner of evil to others; on which account they are in Scripture termed the rod of Jehovah (Isa. x. 5.) and his sword. (Psal. xvii. 13.) But there is no necessity for rejecting the received version, the plain and obvious sense of which is that there is nothing in the world which does not contribute to the glory of God, and promote the accomplishment of his adorable designs. The pious and the wicked alike conduce to this end; the wicked, whom God has destined to punishment on account of their impiety, serve to display his justice (see Job xxi. 30.), and consequently to manifest his glory.nent of the ancient fathers, as well as some of the early bishops or popes "God," says Dr. Gill (who was a strenuous advocate for the doctrines of election and reprobation), "made man neither to dainn him nor to save him, but for his own glory, and that is secured whether in his salvation or damnation; nor did nor does God make men wicked. He made man upright, and man has made himself wicked; and being so, God may justly appoint him to damnation for his wickedness, in doing which he glorifies his justice." "13

2. No doctrine can belong to the analogy of faith, which is founded on a SINGLE text.

Every essential principle of religion is delivered in more than one place. Besides, single sentences are not to be detached from the places where they stand, but must be taken in connection with the whole discourse.

From disregard of this rule, the temporary direction of the apostle James (v. 14, 15.) has been perverted by the church of Rome, and rendered a permanent institution, from a mean of recovery, to a charm, when re covery is desperate, for the salvation of the soul. The mistake of the church of Rome, in founding what she calls the sacrament of extreme unction upon this place, is very obvious; for the anointing here mentioned

(1.) The doctrine of transubstantiation, inculcated by the church of Rome, is founded on a strictly literal interpretation of figurative expressions, this is my body, &c. (Matt. xxvi. 26, &c.) and (which has no relation to the supper) eat my flesh, drink my blood. (John vi. 51-58.) But independently of this, we may farther conclude that the sense put upon the words, "this is my body," by the church of Rome, cannot be the true one, being contrary to the express declaration of the New Testament history, from which it is evident that our Lord is ascended into heaven, where he is to continue "till the time of the restitution of ail things" (Acts iii. 21.); that is, till his second coming to judgment. How then can his body be in ten thousand several places on the earth at one and the same time? We may further add that, if the doctrine of transubstantiation be true, it will follow that our Saviour, when he instituted the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, did actually eat his own flesh and drink his own blood; a conclusion this, so obviously contradictory both to reason and to Scripture, that it is astonishing how any sensible and religious man can credit such a tenet.

(2.) Upon a similar literal interpretation of Matt. xvi. 18. Thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build my church, the church of Rome has erected the claim of supremacy for Peter and his successors. Hence, building on Peter is explained away by some commentators as being contrary to the faith that Christ is the only foundation. (1 Cor. iii. 11.) The most emiof Rome, particularly Gregory the Great, and likewise several of the most judicious modern commentators, respectively take this rock to be the profession of faith, which Peter had just made, that Christ was the Son of God. The connection, however, shows that Peter is here plainly meant. Thou art Peter, says Christ; and upon this rock, that is, Peter, pointing to him; for thus it connects with the reason which follows for the name, in the same manner as the reason is given for that of Abraham in Gen. xvii. 5. and of Israel in Gen. xxxii. 28. The apostles are also called, in other parts of the New Testament, the foundation on which the church is built, as in Eph. ii. 20. and Rev. xxi. 14. as being the persons employed in erecting the the building of it by his preaching, which was fulfilled by his first converting church, by preaching. It is here promised that Peter should commence the Jews (Acts ii. 14-42.) and also the Gentiles. (Acts x. xv. 7.) This pas sage, therefore, gives no countenance to the papal supremacy, but the contrary, for this prerogative was personal and incommunicable.s

5. Such passages as are expressed with brevity are to be expounded by those where the same doctrines or duties are expressed MORE LARGELY and fully.

4 See Bishop Burnet on the 25th Article; Whitby, Benson, Macknight, and other commentators on this text; and Dr. Fletcher's Lectures on the Principles and Institutions of the Roman Catholic Religion, pp. 198. et seq. The Christian Guardian for 1823 (p. 305.) contains a good illustration of James v. 14, 15.

Barrow's Works, vol. i. p. 581. Grotius in loc. Elsley's Annotations, vol. i. pp. 273-275. Gerard's Institutes, p. 163. See also the commencement of Bishop Burgess's Letter to his Clergy, entitled Christ, and not St. Peter, the Rock of the Christian Church, and especially Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary on Matt. xvi. 18.