Conqueri adversam fortunam, non lamentari decet, 'it is proper to regret adversity, not to lament it.'

Pudet regem facti, 'it shames the king (the king is ashamed) of the action.'

Oratorem irasci minime decet, 'it by no means becomes an orator to be angry.'

Obs. 1 Many intransitive verbs, when compounded with prepositions, become completely transitive, and not only govern the accusative, but may be used in the passive voice; thus we have both inire consilia, or societatem, and consilia ineuntur, societas initur; both circumvenit hostem, and ab hoste circumventus est. Some of these verbs change their meaning, when instead of the accusative they repeat their preposition with the appropriate case; thus, aggredi ad aliquam rem means, 'to attempt some business,' but aggredi aliquem is 'to attack some one;' egredi e castris is to go forth from a camp,' but egredi modum is 'to overstep the limit.'

Obs. 2 Some writers, chiefly poets, use intransitive verbs in a secondary signification, which is to all intents transitive; thus we have ardere aliquem, to burn for somebody,' i. e. 'to be in love with him;' olere antiquitatem, 'to have a smack of antiquity; sapere crocum, 'to savour of crocus;' saltare Ledam, 'to dance Leda,' i. e. to 'represent her in a dance;' ambulare mare, 'to traverse the sea;' desinere artem, 'to give up an art;' perseverare inediam, 'to continue a fast;' vigilare noctem, 'to pass the night awake,' &c.

(b) Intransitive verbs may often be followed by an accusative of cognate signification, if it is accompanied by an epithet which bears the stress of the secondary predicate; thus we may say, vivere vitam jucundissimam, 'to live a most pleasant life,' where we might have written vivere jucundissime, 'to live most pleasantly;' mirum somniare somnium, 'to dream a strange dream;' risum ridere sardonium, 'to laugh a sardonic laugh,' i. e. 'to laugh sardonically;' pugnam pugnare nobilissimam, 'to fight a most noble fight,' i. e. 'to fight most nobly.' It has been mentioned already (125) that all oblique cases are secondary predicates; and in this usage, which is called the figura etymologica, the secondary predication is virtually contained in the adjective.

(c) A double accusative of the object is used after verbs of demanding, naming, choosing, regarding, &c., the passives of which take the double nominative (143, (b)); as

Artaxerxes Iphicratem ab Atheniensibus petivit ducem, 'Artaxerxes demanded Iphicrates from the Athenians as (to be) general.'

Invidiam fortunae di comitem dederunt, 'the gods have given envy as a companion to fortune.'

Obs. This construction, in which the second accusative is really a tertiary predicate, is especially common in such phrases as habere aliquem amicum; praestare se virum; facere aliquem certiorem; planum facere aliquid; reddere aliquem caecum, felicem, infelicem; dare alicui pecuniam mutuam.

(d) A double accusative of the object is used after such verbs as curo, do, loco, conduco, suscipio, trado, which denote the assignment or undertaking of a work; and here one of the accusatives denotes the object and the other is a gerundive denoting the act assigned or undertaken; as

Antigonus Eumenem mortuum propinquis sepeliendum tradidit, 'Antigonus gave over Eumenes when dead to his friends for burial,'

Diomedon Epaminondam pecunia corrumpendum suscepit, ‘Diomedon undertook Epaminondas, to corrupt him with money.'

Conon dirutos a Lysandro muros reficiendos curat, 'Conon provides for the repair of the walls destroyed by Lysander.'

(B) Accusative of Reference.

146 The accusative of reference is very frequently supported by one of the prepositions, which will be examined in their proper place. It is found by itself in the following usages.

(a) Verbs of asking, begging, demanding, teaching, and concealing, take two accusatives, of which one refers to the person, as the immediate object, and the other is the accusative of reference; thus we have

Meo jure te hoc beneficium rogo, 'by a right of my own, I ask of you this kindness,' i. e. 'I ask you with reference to this kindness.'

Fortuna belli artem victos quoque docet, 'fortune teaches the vanquished also (with reference to) the art of war.'

Te atque alios partum ut celaret suum, 'in order that she might the notice of you and others with reference to her labour.'

escape

Obs. 1 Another way of explaining this construction is by regarding both accusatives as denoting the object of the verb, one denoting the person, as the nearer object, the other indicating the thing, as the

more remote object; thus, Posce Deos veniam, ask: whom? the gods: for what? pardon.' Dedocebo te istos mores, 'I will unteach: whom? you: what? those customs of yours.' Iter quod habebant, omnes celat, 'he conceals: what? the journey which he was undertaking: from whom? from all men.' But that the accusative of the thing is an accusative of reference is shown by the consideration already mentioned (144), that it remains in the accusative when the verb becomes passive, whereas the accusative of the object becomes the subject of the passive verb; thus we may say, Scito, me non esse rogatum sententiam, 'know that I was not asked (with reference to) my opinion.' Omnes belli artes edoctus, 'thoroughly taught (with reference to) all the arts of war.' It is to be observed, however, that in some phrases there seems to be an option as to which of the accusatives is to be regarded as the case of reference; the accusative denoting the thing must be retained when it is a pronoun or adjective with a general signification, as multa, plura, &c.; as multa ostentis, multa extis admonemur. But we say pecunia a me exigitur rather than exigor pecuniam.

Obs. 2 A prepositional phrase is very often substituted for the accusative of reference with the verbs now under consideration; thus we may have celare, consulere, dicere, interrogare, monere aliquem de aliqua re; contendere, exigere, flagitare, petere, postulare, precari aliquid ab aliquo; percontari, quaerere, scitari, sciscitari aliquid ex aliquo. With celo we may have a dative of the person both when it is used in the active, as Ut tegat hoc celetque viris (Ovid, Fast. Iv. 149, where some read viros), and also with the passive, as Id Alcibiadi celari non potuit (Corn. Nep. Alcib. 5).

(b) An accusative of reference is used with all kinds of verbs, and with certain participles and adjectives, to denote the part of the subject or object to which the predication has immediate relation; as

Omnia Mercurio similis, vocemque coloremque, 'like Mercury in all respects, both in voice and complexion.'

So also we have fractus membra, 'broken down in reference to his limbs,' odoratus capillos, 'perfumed as to his hair,' aeger pedes, 'infirm in his feet,' &c.

Obs. This construction, which is sometimes called the accusativus Graecus because it is a common Greek idiom, is chiefly confined to the poets; for the prose writers more usually employ the ablative, as aeger pedibus, &c.; and even Virgil has in the same line micat auribus et tremit artus, 'he quivers in his ears and trembles as to his limbs.' But the best prose writers use the accusative in certain phrases; as magnam or maximam partem, 'in regard to a great or the greatest part;' cetera, reliqua, for the rest;' id temporis, id aetatis, id genus, &c.

(c) In the poets the passive of verbs, signifying to put on or take off something from the person, such as induor, exuor,

cingor, accingor, discingor, amicior, inducor, take an accusative of reference to denote the thing put on or off; as

Protinus induitur faciem vultumque Dianae, 'she immediately clothes herself with the face and looks of Diana.'

Obs. 1 We have a similar idiom in such phrases as moveri Cyclopa, 'to represent a Cyclops in dancing,' i. e. 'to move oneself with reference to a Cyclops.'

Obs. 2 The passive participle is often used with the accusative; as Dido Sidoniam chlamydem circumdata, 'Dido clothed in a Sidonian cloak;' pueri laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto, 'boys having their bags and tablet hanging from their left arm.'

(d) The accusative of reference may assume an interjectional form, whether an interjection is used or not; as

Proh deum fidem! 'O for (having regard to) the plighted faith of the Gods!'

O fallacem hominum spem fragilemque fortunam! 'O for the deceitful hopes, and precarious fortune of men!'

Testes egregios! O for such noble witnesses!'

Obs. The accusative of time, space, measurement, &c. will be discussed separately.

§3. The Genitive.

147 A study of the Greek language enables us to see that each of the cases had originally a simple meaning; thus, the accusative signified the end of motion or action; the genitive or ablative, which were identical, denoted the origin of motion; and the dative implied rest or presence. Consequently, the accusative would be expressed in English by the preposition 'to' or 'unto' in the sense of 'towards,' or by the mere oblique case; the genitive or ablative, which are really the same case, by the prepositions 'of' or 'from;' and the dative by 'at,' or by 'to,' in its limiting sense of 'for.' In the Latin language, idiomatic usage has introduced considerable confusion in the genitive, ablative, and dative; for while the genitive and ablative have been divided into two distinct cases, with significations more or less inconsistent, the dative has been separated from all connexion with prepositions signifying locality or rest, and these have been transferred to the ablative, which ought to convey a strong expression of separation and movement. The only words which preserve the original use of the cases are the

D. L. G.

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proper names of places and the words which have been mentioned above (128, VII. (b)), to which may be added the adjectives in compounds like meridie, postridie, for medii die, posteri die. And even here an alteration in the forms has led to a want of discrimination, and we find practical rules which assign differences of construction to differences of declension. Under these circumstances we cannot treat the Latin genitive, dative, and ablative with reference throughout to their primitive and proper meaning, but must be content to enumerate the idiomatic usages to which they are applicable.

The genitive in Latin, for which the most general rule is that it may be used when 'of' is employed in English to signify partition, possession, quantity, or relation, and when 'at' or 'for' means price or value stated indefinitely, may be considered in the following arrangement of idiomatic constructions.

(A) Genitive of Possession.

148 (a) A genitive of possession stands after another noun, and denotes to whom or what the object belongs, or from whom it proceeds; as

Honor est virtutis praemium, 'honour is the reward of virtue.' Assidua eminentis fortunae comes est invidia, 'envy is the constant companion of eminent fortune.'

Obs, 1 A genitive of possession is used after the quasi-prepositions instar, causa, gratia, ergo, which must be regarded as substantives; as Plato est mihi instar omnium, Plato is in my judgment as good as all the rest taken together.' Sophistae appellabantur, qui ostentationis aut quaestus causa philosophabantur, 'those were called Sophists who philosophized for the sake of ostentation or gain.’

Obs. 2 The possessive pronouns meus, tuus, suus, are generally used instead of the genitive of possession of the corresponding personal pronouns; thus we say liber meus, 'the book belonging to me;' comitia tua, the election which concerns you;' and these pronouns are used instead of the genitive with causa in the case just mentioned; as tua causa hoc facio, 'I do this for your sake,' i. e. 'for the sake of you.' In the same way we say Ciceronis opera factum est, 'it was done by the exertions of Cicero;' or mea opera factum est, 'it was done by my exertions;' or with a genitive agreeing with the presumed genitive of the pronoun, mea unius opera factum est, 'it was done by the exertions of me alone.'

Obs. 3 The possessive genitive may stand without its governing noun if this precedes in a corresponding member of the sentence, espe cially if it is combined with another genitive, as flebat pater de filii