heart, dwells on the rules of equity, the contempt of money, the reverence for antiquity which they enforce; and shews by the contradictions of his acts and life what truth there is in these maxims, and what powerlessness; how faithfully they foretell the decline of a country in which they are not obeyed; and how utterly unable they are to produce obedience.'

The following passages, extracted from the Chung-yung,' will give some idea of the political philosophy of Confucius. He thus explains his notions of good government: 'Koong-foo-tse was questioned on the constitutive principles of a good government. The philosopher said: The laws of the ancient kings were consigned to bamboo tablets; if their ministers were living now their laws would be in vigour; their ministers have ceased to be, and their principles of good government are no longer followed. The combined virtues and qualities of the ministers of a prince make the administration of a state good, as the fertile virtue of the earth, uniting the moist and the dry, produces and makes to grow the plants which cover its surface. This good administration resembles the reeds which are on the borders of rivers: it springs up naturally on a soil that is suitable to it. Thus the good administration of a state depends upon the ministers who are set over it. A prince who wishes to imitate the excellent government of the ancient kings must choose his ministers according to his own sentiments, which must always be inspired by the public good. That his sentiments may always have the public good for their moving principle, he must conform himself to the great law of duty; and this great law of duty must be sought for in humanity, that fine virtue of the heart which is the principle of love for all men. This humanity is man himself: regard for relations is its first duty.'

He next describes what is necessary in a prince: The prince can never cease to correct himself and bring himself to perfection. With the intention of correcting and perfecting himself, he cannot dispense with rendering to his relations that which is their due. Having the intention to render to his relations their due, he cannot dispense with the acquaintance of wise men, that he may honour them, and that they may instruct him in his duties. Having the intention to become acquainted with wise men, he cannot dispense with the knowledge of Heaven, nor with the law which directs in the practice of prescribed duties.'

The various duties of man are then enumerated. The most universal duties for the human race are five in number, and man possesses three natural faculties for practising them. These five duties are-the relations which subsist between the prince and his ministers, the father and his children, the husband and his wife, the elder and younger brothers, and those of friends among themselves. Conscience, which is the light of intelligence to distinguish good and evil; humanity, which is the equity of the heart; moral courage, which is the strength of the soul-these are the three grand and universal moral faculties of man.'

Results he considers to be more important than the method of arriving at them. 'Whether nature is sufficient for the knowledge of these universal duties; whether study is necessary to apprehend them; whether the knowledge is arrived at with great difficulty or not-when one has got the knowledge, the result is the same. Whether we practise these duties naturally and without effort, or whether we practise them for the sake of getting

profit and personal advantage from them-when we have succeeded in accomplishing meritorious works, the result is the same.'

He then goes on to teach that practice leads to knowledge. He who loves study, or the application of his intelligence to the search of the law of duty, is very near the acquirement of moral science. He who devotes all his efforts to practise his moral duties, is near that devotion to the happiness of men which is called humanity. He who knows how to blush for his weakness in the practice of his duties, is very near acquiring the force of mind necessary to their accomplishment.'

Rulers are next informed how they may make the condition of an empire blessed and enviable. So soon as the prince shall have well regulated and improved himself, straightway the universal duties will be accomplished towards him. So soon as he shall have learned to revere wise men, straightway he will no longer have any doubt about the principles of truth and falsehood, of good and evil. So soon as his parents shall be the objects of the affection which is due to them, straightway there will be no more dissensions between his uncles, his elder brother, and his younger brothers. So soon as he shall treat with fitting respect all public functionaries and secondary magistrates, the doctors and literary men will zealously acquit themselves of their duties in the ceremonies. So soon as he shall love and treat the people as his son, the people will be drawn to imitate their superior. So soon as he shall have collected about him all the learned men and artists, his wealth will be advantageously spent. So soon as he shall entertain agreeably persons who come from a distance, straightway will men from the four ends of the empire flock in crowds to his state, to share in the benefits he bestows. So soon as he shall treat his great vassals with kindness, straightway he will be respected throughout the whole empire.' We must not separate these political axioms from the following, which are more purely moral. Resolutions, he says, is the greatest element of action: All virtuous deeds, all duties which have been resolved on beforehand, are thereby accomplished; if they are not resolved on, they are thereby in a state of infraction. If we have determined beforehand the words which we must speak, we shall experience no hesitation. If we have predetermined our affairs and occupations in the world, they will thereby be easily accomplished. If we have predetermined on moral conduct in life, we shall feel no anguish of soul. If we resolve beforehand to obey the law of duty, it will never fail us.'

He thus distinguishes between the saint and the sage. The perfect, the true, disengaged from all mixture, is the law of Heaven. The process of perfection, which consists in using all one's efforts to discover the celestial law, the true principle of the mandate of Heaven, is the law of man. The perfect man attains this law without help from without; he has no need of meditation or long reflection to obtain it; he arrives at it with calmness and tranquillity. This is the holy man. He who is continually tending towards perfection; who chooses the good and attaches himself strongly to it for fear of losing it, is the sage. He must study much to learn all that is good; he must inquire with discernment, to seek information about all that is good; he must watch carefully over all that is good, for fear of losing it, and meditate upon it in his soul; he must continually strive to become acquainted with all that is good, and take great care to distinguish it

from all that is evil; and then he must firmly and constantly practise this good.'

We conclude our notice of this book with the following testimony to perseverance :- He who shall truly follow the rule of perseverance, however ignorant he may be, he will necessarily become enlightened; however feeble he may be, he will necessarily become strong.'

III. The third of the Chinese classical books is the 'Lun-yu,' or 'Philosophical Dialogues.'. We have here the recorded sayings of Confucius, which bear far more internal evidence of genuineness than those which are commonly attributed to the founders of the Greek schools. We have also the testimonies of affectionate disciples respecting him, which, if they are not wholly to be trusted, at least give us different impressions of his character, out of which we may form one for ourselves. Sir J. F. Davis calls the Lun-yu a complete Chinese Boswell;' M. Panthier, who has recently translated it into French, compares its dialogues to those in which Socrates is the hero. It is, in truth, in these Philosophical Dialogues that we become best acquainted with the lofty mind of Confucius—his passion for virtue, his ardent love of humanity, and desire for the happiness of all men. No sentiment of vanity or pride, of menace or fear, tarnishes the purity and authority of his words. 'I was not born endowed with knowledge,' he says; ‘I am a man who loved the ancients, and made all exertions to acquire their information.' His disciples said of him: 'He was a man exempt from four faults: self-love, prejudice, egotism, and obstinacy. He was mild, yet firm; majestic, though not harsh; grave, yet agreeable.'

Study that is, the search after the good, the true, and the virtuous—was, in his view, the surest means of attaining perfection. 'I have passed,' he said, 'whole days without food, and entire nights without sleep, that I might give myself up to meditation, but it was no use: study is far preferable.' He soon added: "The superior cares only about the right way, and does not think about eating and drinking. If you cultivate the earth, hunger often presents itself in your midst; if you study, felicity is your constant companion. The superior man is anxious only to keep in the right way; he does not trouble himself about poverty.' With what admiration he speaks of one of his disciples, who, in the midst of the greatest privations, devoted himself to the study of wisdom with unabated perseverance! Oh! how wise was Hoei! he had a dish of bamboo to eat from, and a common cup to drink from, and he lived in a humble hovel in a narrow and deserted street; any other man but himself would have sunk under his privations and sufferings. But nothing could affect the serenity of Hoei; oh! what a wise man was Hoei!' But if he could thus honour poverty, he was no less energetic in denouncing a material, idle, and useless life. Those,' he said, 'who do nothing but eat and drink during the whole day, without employing their intellects in some worthy occupation, excite my pity. Is there not the trade of bargemen? Let them practise it; then they will be sages in comparison with what they are now.'

It is a well-known fact that many of the ancient Greek philosophers had two doctrines-one public and the other secret; one for the vulgar, the other for the initiated. Such was not the case with Confucius; he plainly declared that he had no esoterical doctrine. 'Do you fancy, my disciples, that I have any doctrines that I conceal from you? I have none: I have

done nothing that I have not communicated to you, oh my disciples!' He appears, indeed, according to Mr Thornton, to have been particularly anxious not to appear anything higher than he really was. 'Amongst the anecdotes related respecting Confucius at this period, there is one which evinces his desire to disclaim supernatural knowledge. In one of their walks he advised his disciples to provide themselves with umbrellas, since, although the sky was perfectly fair, there would soon be rain. The event, contrary to their expectation, corresponded with his prediction, and one of them inquired what spirit had revealed to him this secret. "There is no

spirit in the matter,” said Confucius ingenuously; "a verse in the She-king says, that when the moon rises in the constellation pe, great rain may be expected.' Last night I saw the moon in that constellation. This is the whole secret."

That our readers may not be unacquainted with the form, such as it is, of this Chinese book, through our desire to cull choice sentences that fell from the lips of Confucius, we will give the substance of one or two of the chapters which seem best to explain his character and manner of thinking, putting headings of our own to each paragraph for convenience of reference.

1. Pleasures of Study.-' The philosopher said: He who devotes himself to the study of the true and the good, with perseverance and without relaxation, derives therefrom great satisfaction.'

2. External Appearances.-'Khoong-tseu said: Ornate and flowery expressions, an exterior that is carefully got up and full of affectation, are rarely allied with sincere virtue.'

3. Thorough Knowledge.—‘The philosopher said: Make yourself completely master of what you have learned, and be always learning something new; you may then become an instructor of men.'

4. A superior Man.-'Tseu-Koong asked who was a superior man; the philosopher said: He is a man who first puts his words into practice, and then speaks conformably to his actions. The superior man is one who entertains an equal feeling of benevolence towards all men, and has no egotism or partiality. The vulgar man is he who has none but sentiments of egotism, without any benevolent disposition towards all men in general.' 5. Rules of Conduct.—' Tseu-chang studied with the view of obtaining the functions of a governor. The philosopher said to him: Listen much, so as to diminish your doubts; be attentive to what you say, that you may say nothing superfluous-then you will rarely commit faults. Look much, that you may diminish the dangers into which you might run through not being informed of what is passing. Watch attentively over your actions, and you will rarely have cause to repent. If in your words you seldom commit faults, and if your actions seldom give you cause to repent, you possess already the charge to which you aspire.'

6. Sincerity and Fidelity.-'The philosopher said: A man devoid of sincerity and fidelity is an incomprehensible being in my eyes: he is a great chariot without an axle, a little chariot without a pole; how can he guide himself along the road of life?'

7. Country Life.The philosopher said: Humanity, or sentiments of benevolence towards others, is admirably practised in the country; he who, in selecting a residence, refuses to dwell in the country, cannot be considered wise.'

8. Honesty. The philosopher said: Riches and honour are the objects of human desire; if they cannot be obtained by honest and right means, they must be renounced. Poverty, and a humble or vile condition, are the objects of human hatred and contempt; if you cannot escape therefrom by honest and right means, you must remain in them.'

9. Preparation for Death.-The philosopher said: If in the morning you have heard the voice of celestial reason, in the evening you will be fit to die.'

10. Consequences of Avarice.-' The philosopher said: Apply yourself solely to gains and profits, and your actions will make you many enemies.'

11. Actions and Words.-The philosopher said: At the commencement of my relations with men, I listened to their words, and I thought that their actions would be in conformity to them. Now, in my relations with men, I listen to their words, but I look to their actions.'

12. Love for the Past.-' The philosopher said: I illustrate and comment upon the old books, but I do not compose new ones. I have faith in the ancients-I love them; I have the highest respect for our Lao-pang' (a sage of the Chang dynasty.)

13. Ideal of a Great Man.-'The philosopher said: To meditate in silence, and to recall to one's memory the objects of one's meditations; to devote one's self to study and not to be discouraged; to instruct men and not to suffer one's self to be cast down-how shall I attain to the possession of these virtues?'

14. Lamentations over the Age.-'The philosopher said: Virtue is not cultivated-study is not manfully pursued: if the principles of justice and equity are professed, they are not followed; the wicked and the perverse will not amend-that is the cause of my sorrow.'

15. Self-Education necessary. The philosopher said: If a man makes no efforts to develop his own mind, I shall not develop it for him. If a man does not choose to make use of his faculty of speech (so as to make himself intelligible), I shall not penetrate the sense of his expressions. If, after having enabled him to know one angle of a square, he does not discover the measure of the other three, I do not repeat the demonstration.'

16. Mere Courage no Virtue.-' Tseu-lou said: If you were leading three bodies of troops of 12,500 men each, which of us would you take for a lieutenant? The philosopher answered: The man who with his own hands would engage us in a combat with a tiger; who without any motive would wish us to ford a river; who would throw away his life without reason or remorse-I certainly would not take for my lieutenant. I should want a man who would maintain a steady vigilance in the direction of affairs; who was capable of forming plans and of executing them.'

17. Riches better than Respectability.-The philosopher said: To get riches in a fair way, I would certainly engage in a low occupation, if it were necessary; but if the means were not honest, I would prefer to apply myself to that which I love.'

18. Love of Music.-'The philosopher being in the kingdom of Tsi, heard the music which is called Tchao, and was so much affected by it that for three months he did not know the taste of his food. He said: I do not fancy that, since the composition of that music, so high a point of perfection has ever been attained.'