and in 1815 Brazil was declared a kingdom. This succession of goodfortune wonderfully improved the condition of this favoured country, which continued until the year 1821, when the impatience and jealousy of the Cortes at Lisbon recalled the king, and, with the view of forcing Brazil into the position of an abject dependency, rescinded the wise measures of the preceding years. This conduct produced the most violent commotions, and the blind opposition of the court to the interests of the colonists drove them to extreme measures. At this juncture the Brazilians offered to the son of the king-who had been left behind as regent—the crown and sovereignty, and it was only when he saw that the people would resort to more desperate measures that he consented to accept the terms. His coronation took place on the 21st of September 1822, and he ascended the throne under the title of Emperor of Brazil.

From that period to the present Brazil has been the theatre of constant antagonism* between the democrats and loyalists. The parties into which the country is divided are little else than violent factions endeavouring to obtain the ascendancy without any other ulterior objects than power and selfish aggrandisement. The violence of these political bands rose to such a height, and became so unmanageable, that the emperor, after a turbulent reign of a few years, thought it prudent to abdicate, which he did in the year 1831, in favour of his son, then a child. Since his accession he has had the task of appeasing a turbulent and wavering multitude the democrats openly demanding the abolition of all sovereignty, and the royalists maintaining the cause of order and tranquillity against the latter's contentious spirit. These contests have occasionally been so strong as not only to weaken, but paralyse the power of the ministry, and, in fact, of all parties; and, what is no slight disgrace to the nation, the purity of election is sometimes so scandalised, that the king in 1842 refused to sanction the existence of the assembly, and ordered a new poll. It is more than probable that, unless some violent revolution occurs which suggests another course to him, the king will have to contend to the last against these distempered factions. Until a more settled condition of the country be obtained, its improvement is of course hopeless.

The population of this empire is perhaps more mixed than that of any other country in the world. It consists of Europeans; mulattoes-or a mixed caste between whites and blacks; Mamalucoes-a mixed caste between whites and aborigines; aborigines in a domesticated state called Cabocloes; Indians in a savage state; free negroes born in Brazil; manumitted Africans; Mestizoes or Zamboes, between the Mamalucoes and negroes: all of which amounted in 1844 to 4,450,249, of whom 363,973 are slaves.

Religion-which is Roman Catholic-and education are both, according to the latest statistical accounts, in a very depressed condition. The revenues of the church are so small that few respectable persons will undertake its duties; and those who do officiate are ill-instructed, and in some cases totally ignorant of all learning except the bare repetition of the prayers of the missal. Brazil may perhaps be alone in this respect; but it is an undisputed fact, that the priesthood is fast diminishing in numbers, and that there are many districts and parishes without any clergyman to attend to the spiritual wants of the people. The prospects

of education, though not bright, are better than those of religion, since the former is not absolutely retrogressive. Of late years efforts have been made, and with some success, to introduce into the curriculum branches of a higher character, and the colleges founded at Rio Janeiro have produced a number of excellent scholars. This fact would encourage us to hope that, aware of the advantage practically of a good education, those of her citizens who have distinguished themselves in her public seminaries will not allow the government to rest until it has done something for its dissemination amongst the people.

The lakes of Brazil are numerous as well as the rivers. Lake Xarayes in the wet season covers many thousand square miles, and looks like an inland sea. The Maranon, the noblest river in the world, with its countless tributaries, belongs to this country; while Rio Grande de Sol, Parana, Francisco, Rio Para, and innumerable others, water its plains, and afford every facility for internal navigation. Brazil produces in abundance sugar, cotton, cacao, yams, maize, tobacco, coffee, &c. Herds of cattle and horses wander over its vast plains in almost a wild state, while its forests are inhabited by beasts of prey. Gold and precious stones, amongst which the diamond may be mentioned, have been discovered in great abundance, and these have as yet formed its staple wealth; but lead and iron are also amongst its productions; and as the country becomes more settled, more wealthy, and more enterprising, its innumerable resources will no doubt be gradually ascertained and developed.

Gold-dust, sugar, cotton, oils, and spices of every kind, medicines, India-rubber, and choice woods, form the principal articles of exportation; while the ports are open to foreign produce, and receive in exchange every description of manufactured metals, glass, paper, earthenware, furniture, wearing - apparel, and every necessary and convenience of life which Europe produces. Para has a considerable trade with the interior by means of the Araguaya. Maranham has a rising trade, and is considered the best built city in Brazil. Parahiba, Bahia or San Salvador, and Pernambuco, are fine cities, and carry on a considerable trade in sugars and cottons. Rio de Janeiro, however, is the capital of the empire, and commands a central position. It is perhaps one of the loveliest spots of the world. The entrance to the bay is narrow; mountains and peaks of every shape crown it on either side. The town is built on the west side of the bay, formed by the débouché of the river of Janeiro, and has a very picturesque appearance from the sea: here embowered deep in trees; there lining the shores of quiet coves, or hanging on crags amid huge boulders of rock, of nature's own architecture. The houses, churches, and public edifices rise amidst the hills, and are brightly vivid with their white frontage standing out in bold relief from their verdant background. The haven is one of the most splendid in the world, and though secluded from the restless billows of the Atlantic, is still within hearing of its deep and mellow murmuring. Here vessels of every nation ride in safety after their long voyage; and here, in the calm waters of its harbour, may be seen the flags of England, France, Holland, Denmark, and the United States, displaying their gay colours, and mingling their bright streamers in the brilliant effulgence of an unclouded sun. Rio Janeiro contains 250,000 out of the small population of Brazil

a circumstance which has given rise to the facetious saying that Rio is the Brazils. Trial by jury in criminal and sometimes in civil suits has been established; twenty pounds a year from income, trade, or labour, admit to the suffrage. Members of any religious fraternity are not allowed to vote, but all free blacks are. There are very few troops, and these principally watch the frontiers. The police force is required to be large in consequence of the number of slaves in Brazil; the principal employment of such officers is to hunt for those who have run away from their masters, and to reclaim them. The navy is now dwindled down to a thing of little importance; formerly it was large and efficient. These features in the aspect of the country afford a general idea of the whole picture, but there is one stain upon its surface which must not be overlooked. Previous to 1830 the number of slaves annually imported amounted to 40,000; since the prohibition of their importation, however, the numbers have fallen to 11,000; but as two-thirds are estimated to die during the voyage, upwards of 33,000 must be exported annually from the coast of Africa. The currency is paper-the gold and silver being mere articles of commerce, and consequently subject to great fluctuation. The revenue of the country is now about £4,500,000, and there is a public debt, but of no great magnitude.

We have now, as succinctly as possible, endeavoured to give a fair picture of the true condition of the Spanish and Portuguese American settlements. We have pointed out the arbitrary manner in which both these nations regulated every particular relating to the commercial enterprise and internal government of their colonies; we have seen that with the means of becoming first among the countries of the world, resources have been neglected, capital misused, and exertions misapplied; we have perceived that education is extremely deficient, religion bigoted and intolerant, the government oppressive and unjust; and we find that instead of riches poverty has been the result; instead of strength, weakness; instead of prosperity, ruin. Looking forward along the vista of the future we see these enslaved and dependent provinces bursting the fetters of tyrannical government-establishing constitutions for themselves, and declaring their total separation and independence; we see them ambitious of becoming free, striving to acquire power and influence, and seeking a more noble name and station among the empires of the world. Wherever there is a desire to accomplish a good thing, one-half the difficulty is surmounted, the way will doubtless follow the will, and necessity still be the parent of something new, of something better. But although the American republics may eventually become powerful, wise, and free, a long series of contention seems to lie before them: there is a tyranny which they have yet to cast off, a bondage from which they have yet to emancipate themselves-which is less felt because it presses not so much on the senses as on the mind, but which is not less cruel, less powerful, less oppressive. The republics of South America must learn a purer religion; they must learn to tolerate liberal opinions; they must learn to regard mankind as one brotherhood on earth and in heaven; they must comprehend the grand principles of religious philosophy before they can hope to attain to that progression and enlightenment which' mark the people of the great northern Republic.

FRENCH AND BRITISH COLONIES.

We enter now upon the not least interesting portion of our subject-a portion of it which affords perhaps even greater variety than that we have already passed over. It embraces every change of scenery and climate that can be met with from the cold and icy regions of the north to the fiery regions of the tropics; and it presents a picture of intelligence and prosperity unequalled in the annals of the world. The colonisation of the West Indies and Mexico, and the possession of Peru and Chili, were achieved with comparatively little trouble and danger, and even enriched the avaricious adventurers by an immediate harvest of gold and spices. In the north of America, however, the difficulties to be overcome were great, and the dangers formidable. The French, so early as 1524, attempted to make discoveries, and to form settlements along its shores. Verazzani, and Jacques Cartier were sent out by Francis I. for that purpose, but both the expeditions failed. Admiral Coligni afterwards formed the design of colonising Florida, with a view to remove the distressed Huguenots beyond the reach of their persecutors; but the emigrants were shortly afterwards massacred by the Spaniards, upon whom a severe but just retaliation was made by Dominique de Gourgue, a soldier of an intrepid and heroic spirit. This happened in 1567.*

The religious disputes that distracted France at this period and for some time subsequently prevented her from directing attention towards the formation of a foreign empire; but in 1604 settlements were effected in Nova Scotia called by her Acadia -- with great success, and all the territory extending along the southern bank of the St Lawrence was claimed by her. With the object of pursuing the fur-trade, the French crossed that gigantic stream and established stations up the country to facilitate the conveyance of their merchandise, so that Canada was also annexed to the other countries they had seized. But the determined hostility of the Indians, especially the Iroquois, caused the settlers constant apprehension, and frequently reduced them to the last stage of despair. Instead of being, like the Peruvians or even Mexicans, of a tame disposition, they were men of an indomitable spirit-strong, active, and warlike, cunning and crafty, and skilled in every artifice and deceit that could lure an enemy to his destruction. Nova Scotia, however, seems to have been the most rapid in its improvement; and in a short time the country was parcelled out into neat farms, industry reaped a plentiful harvest, mills

*The pride and jealousy of the Spaniards could not endure the existence of a French colony in America; accordingly in a time of peace Philip II. sen Menendez to exterminate the French Protestants in Florida. He then sailed to Fort Caroline, the settlement, with a sufficient force, captured it, and hung on the surrounding trees all the colonists who could not escape, where they wee suffered to remain with this inscription over them: 'These wretches have been xecuted, not as Frenchmen, but as heretics.' Dominique de Gourgue, fired with patriotism, and ambitious of avenging his country's honour, sold his estate, equipped three vessels, chose a band of gallant men, sailed to Florida, attacked the fort of the murderers, and after displaying great courage and ability, captured it, an hung his prisoners on the very trees on which they had formerly hung the Frenc: with this inscription: 'Hung, not as Spaniards, but as assassins;' and returned home in triumph to his country.

were established, and an air of peace and comfort given to the new settlement. England, however, endeavoured to wrest this beautiful region out of the hands of the French, and several attempts were made from the year 1621 to 1632 to accomplish the design, but all failed; and the treaty of St Germain, which was signed about the same time, gave the latter peaceable possession. In 1654 it again fell into the hands of the English under the Protectorate, but was restored by the treaty of Breda to the French, by whom it was retained until 1716, when General Nicholson, by order of the British government, made a complete conquest of it.

The illustrious Champlain, who was appointed governor of the indefinite territory of Canada, founded Quebec in 1608. The situation of the city is admirably chosen, being built upon a bold promontory that stands out into the waters of the St Lawrence and commands its spacious channel. The harbour, capable of holding all the fleets of Europe, lies below, and affords ample accommodation for vessels. Montreal was placed higher up the stream, and made the emporium of the fur-trade, and several other forts were erected for the protection of the country.

The Jesuits, who had in Brazil proved themselves the friends of the natives, persevered here with untiring energy in the conversion of the Indians. Institutions were founded in Quebec and other places for their education. The principal college was a large quadrangular building, containing innumerable courts, which they made the centre of their operations, and where dwelt the heads of the order. In this edifice

they formed plans for new missions, and from it issued their mandates. From hence they spread themselves along the banks of the St Lawrence and its tributaries, and formed stations on the Saghuny River, the river Detroit, at the commanding passes of the country, between the Ottawa, the great lakes, the Mississippi, and they penetrated even into the wildest and most remote provinces of those immense regions.

Canada, however, languished under the negligence and supineness of the company which had undertaken its establishment. Montreal, which had been made the centre of its internal trade, was invested in 1647 by the Indians, and again in 1658, when that city, together with Quebec, was attacked. The governor succeeded in repelling them on this occasion; but shortly after the Iroquois, 1200 strong, landed on the island of Montreal; plundered and burnt the houses and corn-fields; massacred men, women, and children; cut to pieces 100 of the regular troops, took 200 prisoners, and destroyed the forts of Frontenac and Niagara. To add to the calamity, an epidemic had broken out amongst the Canadians, and they were in great distress from want of provisions. Thus famine, pestilence, and war seemed combined to exterminate this colony, when the Count de Frontenac, who had been sent out by the French court, came to its relief, attacked the Indians, drove them back to their woods and wigwams, and pursued them with fire and sword into the innermost recesses of the forests. infliction demonstrated the power of the French, and served as a warning to their enemies.

This

If the French felt so severely the disastrous incursions of the Indians, they were no less frequently disturbed and harassed by the hostility of the English, who, from their new settlements in North America, displayed the same inveterate hatred and jealousy of the French name as