very young, and few of the shells are of a size which indicates their having attained a state of maturity. The shells are sometimes entirely decomposed, forming a pulverulent marl; sometimes they are in a state of good preservation. They are frequently intermixed with stems of charæ and other aquatic vegetables, which are matted together and compressed, forming laminæ often as thin as paper.

As the chara is an aquatic plant, which occurs frequently fossil in formations of different eras, and is often of much importance to the geologist in characterizing entire groups of strata, we shall describe the manner in which the recent species have been found in a petrified state. They occur in one of the lakes of Forfarshire, inclosed in nodules, and sometimes in a continuous stratum of a kind of travertin.

The seed-vessel of these plants is remarkably tough and hard, and consists of a membranous nut covered by an integument (fig. d diagram No. 2,) both of which are spirally striated or ribbed. The integument is composed of five spiral valves, (No. 2.)

(a) Part of the stem with the seed-vessel attached. Magnified.

(b) Natural size of the seed-vessel.

(c) Integument of the Gyrogonite, or petrified seed-vessel of Chara hispida,

found in the Scotch marl-lakes. Magnified.

(d) Section showing the nut within the integument.

(e) Lower end of the integument to which the stein was attached.

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of a quadrangular form (fig. g). In Chara hispida which abounds in the lakes of Forfarshire, and which has become fossil in the Bakie Loch, each of the spiral valves of the seedvessel turns rather more than twice round the circumference, the whole together making between ten and eleven rings. The number of these rings differs greatly in different species, but in the same appears to be very constant.

The stems of charæ occur fossil in the Scotch marl in great abundance. In some species, as in Chara hispida, the plant when living contains so much carbonate of lime in its vegetable organization, independently of calcareous incrustation, that it effervesces strongly with acids when dried. The stems of Chara hispida are longitudinally striated, with a tendency to be spiral. These striæ, as appears to be the case with all charæ, turn always like the worm of a screw from right to left, while those of the seed-vessel wind round in a contrary direction. A cross section of the stem exhibits a curious structure, for it is composed of a large tube surrounded by smaller tubes, (diagram No. 3. fig. b, c,) as is seen in some extinct, as well (No. 3.)

(c) Showing the central tube surrounded by two rings of smaller tubes,

as recent species. In the stems of several species, however, there is only a single tube*.

The valves of a small animal called cypris (C. ornata Lam.) occur completely fossilized like the stems of chara, in the Scotch travertin above mentioned. This cypris inhabits the lakes and ponds of England where it is not uncommon. Species of the same genus also occur abundantly in ancient fresh-water formations.

The recent strata of lacustrine origin above alluded to are of very small extent, but analogous deposits on the grandest scale have been formed in the great lakes of North America. By the subsidence of the waters of Lakes Superior and Huron, occasioned probably by the partial destruction of their barriers at some unknown period, beds of sand one hundred and fifty feet thick are exposed, below which are seen beds of clay, inclosing shells of the very species which now inhabit the lake†.

But no careful examination appears as yet to have been made of recent fresh-water formations within the tropics, where the waters teem with life, and where in the bed of a newly drained lake the remains of the alligator, crocodile tortoise, and perhaps some large fish might be discovered.

Imbedding of Fresh-water Species in Estuary and Marine

Deposits.

We have sometimes an opportunity of examining the de posits which within the historical period have silted up some of our estuaries; and excavations made for wells and other purposes, where the sea has been finally excluded, enable us to observe the state of the organic remains in these tracts. The valley of the Ouse between Newhaven and Lewes is one of several estuaries from which the sea has retired within the last seven or eight centuries; and here it appears from the researches of Mr. Mantell, that strata of thirty feet and upwards in thickness have accumulated. At the top, beneath

*Geol. Trans., vol. ii., second series, p. 73. On Fresh-water Marl, &c. By C. Lyell, Esq. + Dr. Bigsby's Journal of Science, &c. No. 37, pp. 262, 263.

the vegetable soil, is a bed of peat about five feet thick, enclosing many trunks of trees. Next below is a stratum of blue clay containing fresh-water shells of about nine species, such as now inhabit the district. Intermixed with these was observed the skeleton of a deer. Lower down, the layers of blue clay contain with the above-mentioned fresh-water shells several marine species well known on our coast. In the lowest beds, often at the depth of thirty-six feet, these marine testacea occur without the slightest intermixture of fluviatile species, and amongst them the skull of the narwal, or sea-unicorn (Monodon monoceros), has been detected. Underneath all these deposits is a bed of pipe-clay, derived from the subjacent chalk *.

If we had no historical information respecting the former existence of an inlet of the sea in this valley, and of its gradual obliteration, the inspection of the section above described would show, as clearly as a written chronicle, the following sequence of events. First, there was a salt-water estuary peopled for many years by species of marine testacea identical with those now living, and into which some of the larger cetacea occasionally entered. Secondly, the inlet grew shallower, and the water became brackish, or alternately salt and fresh, so that the remains of fresh-water and marine shells were mingled in the blue argillaceous sediment of its bottom. Thirdly, the shoaling continued until the river water prevailed, so that it was no longer habitable by marine testacea, but fitted only for the abode of fluviatile species and aquatic insects. Fourthly, a peaty swamp or morass was formed where some trees grew, or, perhaps, were drifted during floods, and where terrestrial quadrupeds were mired. Finally, the soil being only flooded by the river at distant intervals, became a verdant meadow.

We have stated when speaking of the delta of the Ganges, that on the sea-coast there are eight great openings, each of

* Mantell, Geol. of Sussex, p. 285; also Catalogue of Org. Rem., Geol. Trans. v. iii., part 1, p. 201. Second Series.

which has evidently, at some ancient periods, served in its turn as the principal channel of discharge. Now as the base of the delta is two hundred miles in length, it must happen that as often as the great volume of river-water is thrown in by a new mouth, the waters of the sea will at one point be converted from salt to fresh, and at another from fresh to salt; for, with the exception of those parts where the principal discharge takes place, the salt-water not only washes the base of the delta, but enters far into every creek and lagoon. It is evident then that repeated alternations of beds containing fresh-water shells, with others filled with corals and marine exuviæ, may here be formed, and each series may be of great thickness, as the sea on which the Gangetic delta gains, is of considerable depth, and intervals of centuries elapse between each alteration in the course of the principal stream.

It is evident that analogous phenomena must sometimes be occasioned by such alternate elevation and depression of the land as was shown in the last chapter to be taking place in the delta of the Indus. But the subterranean movements affect but a small number of the deltas formed at one period on the globe; whereas, the silting up of some of the arms of great rivers and the opening of others, and the consequent variation of the points at which the chief volume of their waters enters the sea, are phenomena common to almost every delta.

The variety of species of testacea contained in the recent calcareous marl of Scotland, before mentioned, is very small, but the abundance of individuals is extremely great, a circumstance which characterizes fresh-water formations in general as compared to marine; for in the latter, as is seen on seabeaches, coral reefs, or in the bottom of seas examined by dredging, wherever the individual shells are exceedingly numerous there rarely fails to be a vast variety of species.

Imbedding of the Remains of Marine Plants and Animals. Marine Plants.—We have alluded to the large banks of drift sea-weed which occur on each side of the equator in the