equivalent to custom or institute, and somewhat resembles the Jewish Mishna.*

Of these collections six are held in peculiar esteem. One was made by Abu Horaira, a constant attendant on Mohammed, who nicknamed him the Father of a Cat,-an animal of which he was particularly fond, and carried always about with him. That formed by Abu Abdallah of Bokhara is peculiarly famous. Two hundred years after the Prophet's death he selected 7275 genuine traditions from 100,000 of a doubtful, and 200,000 more of a spurious character. This collection was compiled at Mecca, and is adopted by the Sonnees.

Neither the simplicity of his creed, nor the terror of the sword, nor the exhortations of the pulpit could establish that unanimity of sentiment which Mohammed professed so ardently to desire. The spirit of division, which appeared among his followers even before his death, broke out with greater violence under his successors. The Mussulman sects have been far more numerous and violent than those of Christianity; and the history of the mosque presents as melancholy a view of the weakness of the human heart, and the pride of the human intellect, as is afforded by the annals of the church. Volumes might be filled with their names and their tenets. The same knotty points in scholastic theology that puzzled the divines of Christendom,—the

The only complete work in the English language expressly on these traditionary laws, is a translation of the Mischat ul Masabih, or "Niche for holding the Lamp." The English version is by Captain Matthews of the Royal Artillery, and was published at Calcutta, in 2 vols. 4to, in 1809. The Mischat was properly a commentary on the Masabih ul Sunnat, or "Lamp of Religious Observances," collected by the Imam Hussein of Bagdad, who died A. H. 516. Another juridical commentary is the Hadaya, a work of very high authority in all Moslem countries where the Sonnee faith prevails. In 1791, Colonel Charles Hamilton published an English edition, in 4 vols. 4to. The first volume of Colonel Baillie's Digest of Mohammedan Law was published at Calcutta in 1805.

essence and attributes of God,-the justice of predestination, and its compatibility with freedom of will, the province of reason in matters of faith,and a number of casuistical questions on the moral beauty or turpitude of actions,-have been the theme of bitter and implacable controversy among the doctors of Islam.

The two leading sects are denominated the Sonnees and the Sheahs, or Shiites. The difference between them was originally more political than religious. The former appropriate to themselves the name of orthodox; they are traditionists, or believers in the Sonna; and, consequently, acknowledge the authority of the first caliphs, from whom most of these traditions were derived. Distracted with controversy, they at length reposed on the faith of four eminent theologians,-Hanifa, Malec, Shafei, and Hanbal,-who were not only reputed holy and learned divines, but masters in jurisprudence. These interpreters were in some points not altogether unanimous; but they were deemed radically sound, and have given their names to four sects, honoured as the pillars of the Sonnee faith. After their death each had a separate oratory in the Temple of Mecca, and they have been canonized as the four imams, or high-priests, of the established orthodox religion.*

The Sheahs, or sectaries, differed mainly from the preceding in asserting the divine and indefeasible right of Ali to succeed the Prophet. The same spiritual and secular dignity which they conceive should have descended immediately to the father, ought to have been transmitted to his lineal posterity; consequently, they consider, not only the three first caliphs, but all their successors, who took the title of Lords of the Faithful, as usurpers. This be

* Hanifa was poisoned at Bagdad, A. H. 150. Malec died at Medina, A.. H. 178-9. Shafei was a native of Syria, and ended nis days in Egypt, A. H. 204. Hanbal died at Bagdad, A. H. 241.-D'Ohsson, Tab. Gen. Introd. Sale, Prelim. Diss. sect. viii.

lief is hostile to the whole fabric of the Sonnee tradition, which rests on the authority of these three caliphs; though they admit the Sonna where its sources have not been contaminated. The Persians were the first nation who proclaimed themselves of this sect, about the commencement of the Suffavean dynasty (A. D. 1499); and for more than three centuries their creed has been the prevailing faith of that country. The authority of Hanifa maintains the ascendant in Turkey, Tartary, and Hindostan ; Malec is chiefly recognised in Barbary and the southern parts of Africa; Shafei has followers both in Persia and Arabia, and possesses a limited influence over the seacoast of the Indian peninsula and the eastern islands.

There are numerous other heretical sects among the Mohammedans, who disagree even on fundamental points of faith. The spirit of hostility between most of these, especially the Sonnees and Sheahs, is rancorous and irreconcilable. Names which are never mentioned but with blessings by. the one are hourly cursed by the other. No wars,

as has been justly remarked, that ever desolated the Christian world, have caused half the bloodshed and misery, or been so deeply stamped with the character of implacable animosity, as have arisen from the political and religious controversies of the Mohammedan sectaries.

Having thus laid before the reader a sketch of the life and religion of the Arabian Prophet, we shall now advert to the warlike achievements of his followers, who constantly appealed to their victories as an express testimony of Heaven to the truth of their creed; and who, under the terrible name of Saracens,* extended their dominion over more kingdoms and countries in eighty years than the Romans had done in 800.

* The derivation of the name Saracen has puzzled etymolo gists. Some have suggested Sarah, the wife of Abraham; but they forget that the Ishmaelites were descended from Hagar.

CHAPTER VIII.

CONQUESTS OF THE SARACENS.

Disputes in choosing a Successor to Mohammed-Abu Beker elected Caliph-Ali refuses. Submission-Turbulent State of the Empire-Invasion of Syria-Success of the SaracensCapture of Bosra-Siege of Damascus-Battle of AiznadinSurrender of Damascus-Death of Abu Beker-Accession of Omar-Pursuit and Plunder of the Damascene Exiles-Action at the Fair of Abyla-Battle of Yermouk-Siege and Capitulation of Jerusalem-Journey of the Caliph to that CapitalSurrender of Aleppo-The Castle besieged and taken by Stratagem-Reduction of Antioch-Flight of HeracliusSubjugation of Syria and Palestine-Disgrace and Death of Khaled-Invasion of Persia-Battle of Cadesia-Occupation of Madayn-Immense Booty-Battle of Nahavund-Defeat and Death of Yezdijird-Final Conquest of Persia.

It was a political error in Mohammed, and one that proved fatal to the unity and stability of his empire, that he neglected to name his immediate successor, or lay down regulations for filling the vacant

Saraka, a city of the Nabathæans, Sahara, a desert, and an Arabic word signifying a thief, have all been adopted as the true etymon of the name.-Stephan. de Urbibus. Hotting. Hist. Orient. lib. i. cap. 1. Bochart Opera, vol. i. col. 213. Asseman, Biblioth. Orient. tome iv. p. 567. Abulfed. Geog. a Gagnier, p. 63. The appellation has no allusion to any particular city, or any trait of national character. It comes from the Arabic word Sharak, and means an Eastern People; which the Saracens were in reference to the Romans.-Pococke, Specim. p. 33-35. Quid enim sonat Saracenus quam Sharkion et in plurali Sharkiin, i. e. Orientes incolas.-Noble's Arab. Vocab. p. 105. It was not till after the Roman conquests in Palestine that the name was known in Europe, when it superseded that of Ishmaelites and Nabatha

ans.

It was obscurely applied by Pliny and Ptolemy to certain tribes, and used in a larger sense by Ammianus and Procopius, But it was not adopted as a national designation by the Christians until the year 715, in the reign of the Caliph Walid.Marigny, Hist, des Arab. tome ii. p. 393.

caliphate. This is the more surprising, as he left no male posterity of his own, and must have foreseen the dismal consequences of an interregnum, or a disputed succession. His demise was the signal for immediate contest between the two grand parties of his followers. The same day that laid him in the grave saw them assembled to deliberate on the choice of a new sovereign. The Refugees insisted on their prior claim, as being the fellow-citizens, the kinsmen, and first proselytes of their apostle. The Ansars pleaded their meritorious services in offering an asylum to the fugitives of Mecca and their persecuted master. The Koreish were still jealous of the pre-eminence of the line of Hashem. The hereditary title of Ali was opposed by Ayesha, and offensive to the aristocratic spirit of the other chiefs, who were secretly anxious to keep the sceptre within their reach by a free and frequent election. Omar and Abu Beker were both proposed, but they mutually declined to take precedence of each other.

Separation appeared inevitable; swords were drawn, and the hasty structure of Moslem greatness was tottering to its foundation, when the tumult was seasonably appeased by the disinterested resolution of Omar, who quietly renounced his own pretensions, and offered his hand in token of fealty and obedience to his venerable rival. Perhaps the crafty politician saw in the advanced age of the new caliph but a narrow barrier between himself and the throne.

The Hashemites alone declined the oath of fidelity; and it is remarkable that their chief, Ali, the cousin of their Prophet, and the husband of his favourite daughter, had not, in that numerous conclave, a single voice to advocate his claims. He had publicly refused his concurrence in the inauguration of Abu Beker; but the intrigues of the disaffected could not prevail with him to disturb the peace of his country; nor could the arrogance of Omar, who threatened to consume his habitation with fire, terrify him into