GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

PART FIRST.

FACE OF THE COUNTRY-MOUNTAINS-RIVERS.

The general range of the high lands in Europe is from N. E. to S. W. or from the Ural mountains to Spain and the Atlantic Ocean. Switzerland is the most elevated region. From this general mountainous tract, the rivers descend down the N. Western declivity, into the Atlantic, the N. sea and the Baltic; and down the S. Eastern declivity, into the Mediterranean and Black seas. The principal portions of low and level land in Europe are situated near the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic and of the N. sea, including the N. parts of France and Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, the N. sections of Prussia and Poland, and the S. W. of Russia. A great part of Holland is so depressed below the level of the sea, as to be naturally exposed to inundations, and is secured only by embankments. Russia in the main is a level region, abounding in steppes or extensive open plains.

The names of the six principal European mountains are, the Alps, Appenines, Pyrenees, Carpathian, Haemus or Balkan, Dofrafield or Scandinavian. The Alps are on the W. and N. W. of Italy, dividing it from France, Switzerland and Germany. They extend in a semicircular form, from the gulf of Genoa to the gulf of Venice, about 600 miles. They are generally from 4,000 to 12,000 feet, or from one to two miles in height. They present to view many lofty peaks, with narrow valleys intervening, and chasms of awful depth. Their summits are often covered with snow and involved in clouds. From sources thus elevated, many sweeping torrents descend, and numerous lakes and rivers are formed. Mount Blanc in Savoy, is the most celebrated peak of the Alps, being nearly 16,000 feet high, and discernible at the distance of 140 miles.

The Appenines extend through the middle of Italy, from N. W. to S. E. They may be considered as a branch of the Alps, but are not so lofty. They are frequently covered with trees, at their greatest elevations; and it is evident from the volcanic rocks and lava, and desolate appearances which here and there are found on them, that they have formerly been active volcanoes. The Pyrenees are situated between France and Spain, extending from the Mediterranean to the bay of Biscay, 250 miles. The highest or western part of this chain, rises to the height of two miles, or 11,000 feet above the level of the sea, and like the Alps, contains glaciers, and is subject to destructive avalanches.

The Carpathian mountains are N. and E. of Hungary, extending 500 miles from the borders of Germany to the Black sea. Their summits are but a mile and a half in height and covered with perpetual snow. Mount Haemus or the Balkan mountains, are in European Turkey, and extend from W. to E. in the form of a crescent or semicircle, terminating at the Black sea.

The Dofrafield mountains separate Sweden from Norway, ranging from S. to N. above 1,000 miles toward the northern ocean. The more southern part of this chain is the highest, but is not equal in height to several other mountains of Europe. The Dofrafield mountains furnish immense quantities of pine timber and abound in valuable minerals, as copper, iron and marble. There are three famous volcanoes in Europe, viz. Vesuvius in Italy, Etna in Sicily, and Hecla in Iceland.

The European rivers are not remarkable for length or magnitude. In this respect, they are inferior to the rivers of America and Asia. The Volga and the Danube are the longest, the for mer being about 2,000 miles in length, and the latter 1,500 miles. The Dnieper is about 1,000, the Don 900, the Rhine 700, the Dniester 600, the two Dwinas, the Elbe, the Rhone and the Loire about 500 miles inlength.

QUESTIONS.

What is the general range of the high lands in Europe? Which is the most elevated country? Where do the rivers empty which flow down the N. W. declivity? Where do they empty which descend the S. E. declivity? Where are the principal portions of low and level land in Europe? What is said of Holland? Of Russia? What are the names of the principal mountains? Where are the Alps? Between what two gulfs do they extend? What is their length? Their general height? Which is the most celebrated peak of the Alps and where and how high is it? Where are the Appenines and how described? Where are the 'yrenees and how long? Which part of them is the highest and how high? Where are the Carpathian mountains and how long and high? Where are the Haemus or Balkan mountains? What mountains separate Europe from Asia? What and where are the three celebrated volcanoes? What is said in general of the European rivers ? Which are the two longest and how long? What course do they run and where empty? Where do the Dnieper, Don and Rhine empty and of what length is each? Where and how long is the Dniester? Where are the Dwina and Duna, the Elbe, Rhone and Loire, and of what length? What are the principal rivers flowing from Europe into the Caspian Sea? Into the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof? Into the gulf of Venice? Into the Mediterranean, from Italy, France and Spain ? Into the Atlantic from Spain? Into the bay of Biscay from France ? Into the N. Sea from Germany and the Netherlands? Into the Baltic, from Prussia and Poland ? Into the gulfs of Finland and Riga? Into the gulf of Bothnia? Into the White Sea and the Arctic ocean? 12*

GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

PART SECOND.

CLIMATE, SOIL, CULTIVATION, PRODUCTIONS. The climate of Europe is various, but generally of a moderate and happy temperature, and highly favorable to health and vegetation. The winters and summers are more temperate than in the corresponding latitudes of N. America. Especially is this true of the western portions of Europe, which are rendered milder by the breezes and vapors proceeding from the waters of the Atlantic. The eastern parts of Europe are colder than the western, on account of their exposure to the chilling winds which blow from the snowy and icy mountains of central Asia. The southern parts are warmer, and the climate more oppressive, than it naturally would be, on account of the hot pestilential winds from Africa. England, Ireland, and a part of Netherlands, are remarkable for a moist atmosphere, and are subject to frequent changes of weather, but not to the extremes of heat or cold. France, Southern Germany, Italy, Turkey and Greece, are distinguished as enjoying the most salubrious and delightful climate.

The soil of Europe, is not in the main so distinguished for natural luxuriancy as for the skill and industry with which it is cultivated. The art of agriculture, in many parts is brought to a very high degree of perfection, and large tracts of ground, by nature rough and unpromising, are improved to advantage. In other districts, naturally rich and fertile, the inhabitants are so oppressed or indolent, and negligent of the soil, that much land is suffered to lie unimproved and unproductive. In the south of Europe, as in Spain, Portugal and southern Italy, the soil is luxuriant, and congenial to the growth of wheat, the vine, the fig and the olive, which are cultivated to a great extent, but much of the ground is left a mere waste, through the people's indolence.

In the middle regions, Great Britain and the Netherlands, have long been celebrated for agricultural skill and industry, in particular for the raising of wheat and the pasturage of cattle. France and the N. of Italy are fertile, agricultural countries, abounding in wheat, wine and olive oil. Switzerland, notwithstanding the ruggedness of its surface, is well cultivated and very rich in pasturage. Germany, Austria, Prussia and Poland, are in general, much less distinguished for skill in agriculture; but the soil is good and produces vast quantities of wheat and rye. In the N. of Europe, as in Norway, Sweden and northern Russia, the climate is so cold that very little grain can be raised, except rye, barley

and oats. Potatoes, hemp and flax are extensively cultivated, and the pasturage, throughout large tracts, is excellent. Grazing is there the principal occupation, especially among the Russian Tartars, whose flocks and herds are next to innumerable.

QUESTIONS.

What is said of the climate of Europe? Is it more temperate than that of N. America? Why is the W. part of Europe warmer than the E.? What winds tend to make the E. of Europe cold? What winds tend to increase the heat of the S. of Europe? What parts of Europe are remarkable for a moist and variable atmosphere? What countries are most distinguished for salubrity of climate? What is said of the soil of Europe? Of the art of agriculture? Why are some fertile districts suffered to lie unimproved? What description is given of the soil and productions in the S. of Europe, as in Spain, Portugal &c.? What is said of G. Britain and the Netherlands in this respect? Of France and the N. of Italy? Of Switzerland? Of Germany, Austria, Prussia and Poland ? What kind of crops may be raised in the more northern parts of Europe? What is there the principal occupation?

GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

PART THIRD,

COMMERCE, ARTS, MANUFACTURES, LANGUAGE AND LEARNING.

Peculiar facilities are afforded in Europe, for inland navigation and for foreign commerce. The navigable rivers are numerous and flow in various directions, from the interior to the surrounding seas. There are also many canals connecting one sea and river with another. By these means, an easy and direct communication is opened to the ocean, from almost every part of Europe. Some of the principal canals are the following, viz. The canal of Languedoc in France, connecting the river Garonne with the Mediterranean, 140 miles in length; the Central canal of France, 71 miles long, uniting the Saone and Loire ; and the Orleans canal connecting the Loire and Seine. In England, are the Leeds and Liverpool canal, 140 miles long; the Grand Trunk 140 miles in length, and the Grand Junction canal 100 miles long. In Scotland is the Caledonian canal, between the Atlantic and Murray Frith, and in Ireland the Grand Irish canal, between the Shannon and the Liffee.

The European sea coast is very extensive and remarkably indented with gulfs and bays, thus furnishing numerous and excellent harbours. These commercial advantages are extensively improved. The nations of Europe in general are more or less engaged in active commerce and some of them, particularly England,

France and Holland, have signalized themselves for commercial skill, enterprise and intrepidity. Of England, it may be said, that her ships are almost in every sea, and on every shore, and that she has long manifested a determination, to have intercourse as far as possible, with the whole human family; to visit every habitable and accessible corner of the world, wherever there are rational be ings to barter with, or any desirable commodity to be procured.

The arts both useful and ornamental, are brought to greater perfection in Europe, than in any other grand division of the globe. By the ingenuity and industry of the people manufactures in almost endless variety are here produced, and hence distributed, by means of commerce, among other nations. England, France, Netherlands, Saxony, and Prussia, excel in woollen manufactures. Great Britain, France and Austria, in manufactures of cotton. Ireland, Bohemia, Moravia, Holland, and Silesia, in linens. Spain, Italy, and the South of France, and of Austria, in silks. England, Wales, and Germany, are highly distinguished for their metalic manufactures; and Germany and Holland, are unrivalled in the making of toys. Clocks and watches of superior quality, are made in England, and they are manufactured in vast numbers, in Switzerland, France and Germany. Italy has excelled in the fine arts, as music, sculpture, and painting.

Europe also is the seat and centre of literature and the sciences, These are cultivated especially, and with the highest success, among the more elevated ranks of society; but common learning is more neglected, and not so generally diffused among the mass of community as in the United States. Multitudes of the poor in Europe are unable to read or write. Elementary village schools, are comparatively rare. Knowledge is more confined to High schools, colleges and Universities. The European Universities, are in general, far more extensive establishments than the colleges in America, and conducted upon other principles, and with very different customs. They are endowed with immense funds, and furnished with large libraries and all necessary philosophical apparatus, and with botanical gardens, exhibiting as far as may be, specimens of the various species of shrubs, plants and flowers. Each university embraces a number of colleges, a great variety of collegiate buildings, and a supply of professors in every branch of science. Thither learned men resort, or reside there, as seats of general literature, and to enjoy the scientific advantages which they afford. The students are usually uncontrolled and voluntary, in the choice and in the pursuit of their studies. Little or no discipline is established for the regulation of their moral conduct. They may or may not, suffer themselves to be stimulated by the