of Tabasco and Chiapas and most of Guatemala, and had an outlying colony in the Huastec of Vera Cruz. Their principal nations, besides the Maya proper in Yucatan, were the Quiche and Cakchiquel of Guatemala. There is evidence that the ancient builders of Palenque and Copan, already in ruins at the time of the conquest, were of the same stock. The Maya proper had at one time formed a powerful confederacy, which, however, had broken up into a number of independent States before the arrival of the Spaniards, by whom they were conquered in detail, the last free remnant being driven from their citadel of Chan Santa Cruz by Mexican troops only as late as 1900, after a stubbornly contested war of several years. When first known, the great cities Mayapan, Uxmal, and Chichén-itzá, now in ruins, were flourishing centres of dense populations, which had attained the highest point of native American civilization. In government they retained a modified clan system, with an hereditary chief ruler, assisted by a council from his own clan. They were preeminent in architecture, building palaces, pyramids, and cities of cut and polished limestone, set in mortar and covered with figures and hieroglyphic inscriptions. Strange as it must seem, all this was done without metal tools, gold and copper being used only for ornamental purposes. Agriculture was the principal industry, the common lands being portioned out by the village chiefs. Honey and wax were obtained from domesticated bees, and an active commerce was carried on by sea along the southern Gulf coast as far as the island of Cuba, copper disks and cacao-beans being used as currency. Their intricate calendar, with its cycles of 20, 52, and 260 years, has been the subject of much scholarly interest, as also their remarkable hieroglyphic records, written upon parchment or maguey paper, or carved or painted upon the walls of their ruined cities, and for which as yet there is no interpreter. The cognate Cakchiquel and Quiche were similar to the Maya in culture, differing only in dialect and extent of territory and influence. The great Popol Vuh, a native compendium of the ancient mythology and history of the Quiche, translated by Brasseur de Bourbourg, has been characterized as "one of the most valuable monuments of ancient American literature." Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Upper Costa Rica were occupied by tribes of different stocks, some of them of considerable advancement, others, particularly along the east coast, mere savages. The Xinea, on the Guatemala-Salvador frontier, are believed to have been a remnant of the pre Mayan tribes. The Carib, on the Honduras coast, were exiles from the Antilles. The Mosquito, Ulva, and Rama, farther south along or near the coast, were all wild tribes of different degrees of savagery. The Ulva also have the custom of head-flattening. The Guatuso of northern Costa Rica were an agricultural but brave and savage people, now near extermination, owing to the cruelties of the rubbergatherers. South of their territory were found tribes of higher culture grade, the northern outposts of the civilized Chibchan tribes of Colombia. The whole of the West Indies, with the exception of two or three sporadic settlements from Florida in the Bahamas, was held by tribes of the two great South American stocks, Arawakan and Cariban, the former being indigenous, while the latter were recent invaders, who, at the time of the discovery, had as yet colonized only the southern islands. The Arawakan tribes were peaceful and agricultural, skillful weavers, woodcarvers, and stone-polishers, but unable to withstand the inroads of the more savage Carib. Below is given a list, from north to south, of the linguistic stocks of Mexico, Central America, and the islands, so far as present limited study enables us to classify them, the Mexican portion being according to the latest researches of Dr. Nicolas Leon. The first five are extensions from the United States; the Cariban, Chibchan, and Arawakan are mainly in South America: Yuman (Lower California, etc.). Athapascan (Chihuahua, etc.). Coahuiltecan (Tamaulipas, etc.). INDIANS GF SOUTH AMERICA. Our acquaintance with the ethnology of South America is still very imperfect, for the reason that vast areas are yet unexplored, while in some regions brought under Spanish or Portuguese dominion so much confusion has been wrought by the migration, disintegration, or complete extermination of tribes that the writings of early missionaries or travelers help little to clear up the difficulties. Here, as wherever else the uncivilized man confronts the European, we find the same steady march toward extinction, brought about originally by wholesale massacres and cruelties at the hands of the white conqueror, and later by the new diseases which followed in his wake. In As in North America, we find also on the southern continent the phenomenon of vast areas occupied by tribes of some half-dozen linguistic stocks, differing little in habit and all upon nearly the same culture plane, with other areas of mountainous or otherwise difficult country held by a multitude of small stocks with habits almost as widely variant as their languages. general we may group the tribes by three great regions, viz. the Andean, the Amazonian, and the Pampean, the first being the mountainous territory extending along the Pacific coast from the isthmus to about 35° south, in Central Chile; the second, the whole interior stretching eastward from the summit of the Cordillera to the Atlantic, with the exception of the Chaco; and the third, comprising the Chaco forest and the grassy plains of the Pampas, between the Andes and the Paraná River, together with Southern Chile, and stretching southward to Cape Horn. In the Andean region we find the highest culture, represented by the Chibcha, Yunca, Aymara, and above all the Quichua, whose empire extended nearly two thousand miles along the coast and made its influence felt even among the wild tribes of the Upper Amazon and the Chaco border. In nearly all these nations we find a firmly established system of government, with social distinctions clearly defined; careful and successful agriculture, including irrigation and the use of manures; superior pottery, with curious designs found nowhere else; weaving of cotton and the hair of domesticated animals; beautiful metal-work in gold, silver, and bronze; and an architecture with such enduring monuments as the stupendous ruins of Gran Chimu, Paucartambo, and Tiahuanaco. So far as can be learned the various governments were based upon the clan system, even in Peru, where the Inca himself was but the executive officer of a council of the gentes. Of the various religious systems the best known is that of the Quichua, whose great god was the Sun, after whom came their culture hero, the white and bearded Viracocha. The dead were buried in the ground, deposited in stone sepulchres, or mummified and preserved thus in temples and caves. Anything in the nature of a hieroglyphic system appears to have been unknown, the nearest approach having been the quipu records of the Quichua. The descendants of these cultured Andean nations still number many millions, in fact constituting the bulk of the population over large areas, and although in theory accorded equal civil rights, they are yet, like aboriginal races elsewhere, in a state of practical vassalage to the dominant race of the conqueror. The tribes of the Amazonian region, the Orinoco, and the Paraná, were all in various degrees of savagery, although nearly all sedentary and more or less agricultural in habit. Cannibalism prevailed extensively, the word itself being derived from the name of the fierce Carib tribe. The custom still exists on some of the southern headstreams of the Amazon. Living mainly under the tropics, many tribes were entirely naked, and tattooing and body-painting, although occasionally found, were rare. Labrets were worn by a number of tribes. Scalping was unknown, but several tribes, notably the Mundurucú, preserved the heads of their slain enemies. The blowgun and poisoned arrow were general throughout the Upper Amazon and Orinoco regions, curari poison constituting a chief article of intertribal trade. Government was of the loosest, and confederations were almost unknown. The prevailing religious form was a crude animism, apparently several degrees lower than that of the North American savages. Throughout this vast area the tribes which have not disappeared are stil nearly in their primitive condition, excepting where devoted missionaries have gathered them into villages, chiefly in Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay. The Jesuit missions among the Guarani are recognized as the most successful ever established in America. At one time they contained over 300,000 Christianized Indians, the basis of the modern civilized States of Paraguay and Uruguay. The tribes of the northern and central Pampean region, including the Chaco and Pampas sections of Argentina, are warlike equestrian nomads and hunters, living in tents of skin, subsisting almost entirely upon meat, and in other respects also very similar to our own plains tribes, but superior in the possession of herds of cattle and sheep, as well as horses, and in a certain skill in iron-working. The Araucanians of Southern Chile, an extension of one of the most important Pampean stocks, have successfully maintained their independence both against the Inca emperors and the conquering Spaniard. The Patagonians resemble their northern neighbors of Argentina, but represent a somewhat lower grade of culture. Like them, they are brave fighters and of fine physique. The natives of bleak Tierra del Fuego are in perhaps the lowest stage of culture found in South America, occupying the merest temporary shelters, going almost naked even in coldest weather, and having no apparent tribal forms or ceremonials. On the other hand, they are skillful hunters and daring fishermen. Below is given a tentative list of the existing South American linguistic stocks, numbering approximately sixty so far as present very deficient knowledge permits a classification, Brinton being the chief authority: Alikulufan (Tierra del Fuego). Arauan (Brazil). Araucan or Aucanian (Argentina, Chile). Aymaran (Peru, Bolivia). Betoyan (Colombia, Venezuela). Carajan (Brazil). Cariban (Brazil, Venezuela, Guiana, islands). Caririan (Brazil). Catamareñan (Argentina). Cayubaban (Bolivia). Changuinan (Colombia). Charruan (Uruguay, etc.). Chibchan (Colombia, Costa Rica). Chiquitan (Bolivia). Chocoan (Colombia). Chonekan or Tzonecan (Patagonia). Churoyan (Colombia). Cocanucan (Colombia). Cunan (Colombia). Guahiban or Guayban (Colombia). Guaraunan (Venezuela). Guaycuran (Argentina, etc.). Itonaman (Bolivia). Jaruran or Yaruran (Venezuela). Jivaroan (Ecuador, etc.). Laman (Peru). Lulean (Argentina). Mainan (Ecuador, etc.). Matacoan (Argentina, Paraguay). Mocoan (Colombia). Mosetenan (Bolivia). Moviman or Mobiman (Bolivia). Onan (Tierra del Fuego). Otomacan (Venezuela). Paniquitan (Colombia). Panoan (Peru). Payaguan (Argentina). Peban (Peru, Ecuador, etc.). Piaroan (Salivan?)-(Colombia, Venezuela). Puinavian (Colombia). Puquinan (Peru). Quichuan or Kechuan (Peru, Ecuador, etc.). Salivan (Piaroan?)-(Venezuela). Samucuan (Bolivia). Tacanan (Bolivia). Tapuyan (Brazil, Colombia). Ticunan (Brazil). Timotean (Venezuela). Yusucasan (Bolivia). INDIAN SARSAPARILLA, NUNNARI-ROOT. The roots of Hemidesmus Indicus, an East Indian shrub of the natural order Asclepiadacex, used as a substitute for sarsaparilla. INDIAN SUBREGION. A zoögeographical district of the Oriental Region, comprising India from the valley of the Indus eastward to the delta of the Brahmaputra, and southward nearly to its terminus, where it mingles with the Ceylonese Subregion, which includes Ceylon and the extremity of the Indian Peninsula. It is rich in animal life, which, as a whole, is Oriental in its affinities. The Mediterranean (Palearctic) Subregion seems to extend eastward to the arid valley of the Indus, and India thus possesses several Ethiopian forms, which have led some zoologists to regard its fauna as Ethiopian rather than Oriental, but the weight of opinion has turned against this view. The east ern shore of the Bay of Bengal is the home of so mixed an animal population that it has sometimes been called an 'Indo-Malayan' subregion, but this is not generally recognized. Northeastern India, along the midslopes of the southern Himalaya ranges, is very different, faunistically, from the peninsular plains or the low hot coastal regions, owing to its elevation, and forms a long westward-reaching tongue of the Indo-Chinese and Manchurian subregions (q.v.). See maps under DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS; and the paragraph on Fauna, under INDIA. INDIAN SUMMER. A short season of pleas. ant weather in the Central and Atlantic Coast States, usually occurring in October or November, more rarely in December, and characterized by an almost cloudless sky, calm or light airs, a hazy atmosphere, and mild temperature in the daytime, but rather cool at night. It may last one or two weeks, and may recur two or three times during a season, but rarely more than twice. During Indian summer weather the barometer stands above the average, and the cloudless sky indicates that there is in general a descending tendency of the air at some distance above the earth. Balloons ascending to great heights show that there is very little horizontal movement in the air, but what there is is toward the east. At this season the leaves of most plants dry up and drop away, adding their débris to the dust in the atmosphere. Owing to the prevailing dryness, forest fires and prairie fires occur at this time, and the smoke adds to the intensity of the Indian summer haze, but is not necessarily the sole cause of it. Frequently such smoke spreads slowly eastward, gathers moisture to itself, and is followed by clouds and gentle rain. Precisely similar weather occurs in Germany, where it is known as the 'Old Woman's Summer' and 'Saint Luke's Summer,' and in England, where it is known as 'Saint Martin's Summer,' or 'All Hallow Summer'; these terms being applied to it according to the various dates on which it happens to occur in October or November. There are also many indications of its existence in China and Siam. The haze attending the African Harmattan in December and January appears very similar to that of Indian summer, but the diatom dust that characterizes the former has not yet been found in the latter. As to the origin of this expression, Mr. Albert Matthews has shown that it does not occur anywhere either in printed books or manuscripts until the year 1794; but at that time it was in use throughout the Atlantic States. The popular belief that Indian summer weather was predicted by the native Indians in conversation with the first European settlers finds no documentary corroboration, and the idea that the term Indian summer was employed by the early settlers seems to be a myth. In general, neither this term nor anything corresponding to it is to be found in any Indian language. The term Indian summer in its present usage was introduced into England from America. In 1778 Horace Walpole used the same expression, but he evidently had in mind the intense heats of the midsummer weather in India and the West Indies. For full information on the whole subject, see the Monthly Weather Review, vol. xxx., pp. 19-29 and 69-79 (Washington, 1902). INDIAN TERRITORY. A former Territory of the United States, situated nearly in the middle of the country. It was bounded on the north by Kansas and Oklahoma, on the east by Missouri and Arkansas, on the south by Texas, and on the west by Oklahoma. Its area was 31,209 square miles, including 419 square miles of water. Because the Indian Territory had been reserved for Indian tribes, it leng remained practically unexplored, while the areas around it were surveyed and well mapped. A curious illustration of the fact that little was known about this large region was afforded by the survey of the lands of the Territory authorized by the National Congress in 1894. It had been assumed that the Territory was mainly an open, flat country, and that the survey might therefore proceed very rapidly. It was found, however, that about one-fourth of the Territory is mountainous, and that nearly two-thirds is woodland. As late as 1895 it appeared that while good maps of the drainage of the Chickasaw reservation had been prepared, its relief was not yet mapped; and that little was known either of the drainage or relief of the remainder of the Territory. Various parts of the Territory differ much in their topography. South of the Canadian River, in the reservations of the Choctaw and Chickasaw nations, the country is considerably broken, being traversed by the winding serpentine ridges forming the southern part of the Ozark Hills. These hills enter the Territory from Arkansas, and the summits near the Arkansas boundary reach an altitude of 2500 feet above the sea. Farther south they diminish in height till, in the middle of the Choctaw reservation, they are not more than 1000 feet above the general level of the country. The rocks of these ridges are, for the most part, quartzite, while the valleys between them are floored with limestone. This difference in the rock formations explains the topography. The quartzite ridges are the survival of the hardest rocks. The northeastern part of the country, north of the Arkansas and Canadian rivers, is a plateau deeply scored by streams. West of this very broken region the Territory is broadly undulating. The eastern portion of the Territory, particularly in the hilly and mountainous regions, is heavily timbered. The southern part, including the Chickasaw reservation and the western portion of the Choctaw country, is a territory of timber and prairie, the timber predominating to the extent of nearly three-fourths of the area. The largest extent of prairie is in the Cherokee and Creek reservations of the north, where there is little timber except along the streams between the timber belt on the west and the hilly country on the east. Some Azoic rocks are found in the north, and the igneous rocks of the hilly and mountainous areas are above mentioned, but the predominant geological formation is Carboniferous; in this formation are the bituminous coal measures. Coal is mined most largely in the southeast and is yielding nearly 3,000,000 tons a year, most of the product being marketed in the Southern States. The output of petroleum increased very rapidly from 6472 barrels in 1900 to 712,000 barrels in 1904. Gold and silver are also found in the mountain regions, and asphalt has been discovered, but is not yet of much importance. As the drainage of the Territory shows, the general slope of the land is gently from northwest to southeast. The streams are numerous, but none of them is important for navigation. The Red River flows along the boundary of Indian Territory and Texas. The Canadian River, rising in New Mexico, flows east nearly across the Territory till it joins the Arkansas. The Washita River, emptying into the Red River, drains most of the southwestern part of the country. The Arkansas, passing through the Territory, and the Red River carry off all the drainage. The whole Territory belongs to the humid area of the eastern half of the United States, with sufficient, though not superabundant, rainfall for agriculture. Lying, however, between the 33d and 37th parallels of latitude, the region has a warm climate, the main annual temperature being about 60° F. For FLORA and FAUNA, see those sections under UNITED STATES. AGRICULTURE. The Territory has the advantages of excellent natural conditions for the development of agriculture. The soil is fertile, and the rainfall is greater and more certain than it is in Oklahoma Territory to the west. In 1900, 36.6 per cent. of the land was included in farms. Most of the farms are owned by Indians, but there are also a number of negroes who own land, and also a certain number of whites who have secured land, principally by being adopted as citizens by act of the legislatures of the seyeral Indian nations. However, the Indians do not, as a rule, cultivate their own farms, but rent them instead to the whites, the latter constituting seven-ninths of the total number of farmers. The average size of farms varies from 42.5 acres in the small Seminole Nation, to 329.2 acres in the Creek Nation. The climatic conditions are such that a great variety of products, including those of both the temperate and semi- tropical regions, can be grown. The cultivation of the soil has thus far, however, been largely subordinated to stockraising, and corn has consequently been the leading crop, comprising, in 1905, 1,905,131 acres. The areas devoted to wheat and oats for the same year were, respectively, 270,261 and 201,607 acres, while the tame hay and forage crops exceeded 45,000 acres. Cotton produces abundantly and is rapidly becoming of great importance, the acreage devoted to its cultivation in 1905 being 816,638. Fruits and vegetables are also very successfully grown. The prairie lands of the Territory afford excellent and extensive pasturage for stock. The number of cattle in 1905 exceeded 580,000. In the same year the horses numbered 213,234; mules, 53,648; sheep, 28,419; and swine, 751,352. MANUFACTURES. Because of peculiar local conditions, especially the nature of the population, manufacturing has been slow to develop in Indian Territory. However, a good begin ning has been made. The census of 1900 showed 789 establishments, with 1714 wage-earners, and products valued at $3,892,181. Of these establishments 179, with 1087 wage-earners, and products valued at $2,629,067, are comparable with the class of establishments included in the census of 1905, when the number of establishments was 466, the number of wage-earners 2,257, and the value of products $7,909,451. The most important industries are flour and grist milling, the manufacture of cottonseed oil and cake, printing and publishing, and the manufacture of lumber and planing-mill products. The greatest activity centres in the Chickasaw nation. TRANSPORTATION. The railroad facilities are adequate enough for a higher industrial development than that which now prevails in the Territory. In 1905 there were reported 2686 miles. The principal lines are the Missouri, Kansas and Texas; the Saint Louis and San Francisco; the Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf; the Santa Fe and the Rock Island. FINANCE. Under the tribal form of government, the different nations levied taxes on noncitizens and those employing non-citizens. Other important sources of revenue were the royalties on mineral products and the interest on funds held in trust by the United States Government. The Indian Agent collected and disbursed the tribal funds. BANKS. April 6, 1906, there were 144 national banks, with loans amounting to $15,274,235; cash, etc., $1,008,228; capital, $6,018,110; and deposits, $14,130,495. The 57 state banks, June 30, 1905, had in loans, $1,734,579; capital, $1,253,425; and deposits, $1,611,398. There were also three private banks. RELIGION. Missionary work among the Indians of the Territory has always been very active. The Methodists and the Baptists are in the majority; Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, Disciples of Christ, Friends, and other denominations are represented. EDUCATION. Religious denominations, the National Government, and the tribal governments all maintain schools within the Territory. The Territory rapidly filled up with a population of whites, who, having no voice in the government, were unable to secure public school advantages for their children. A recent act of Congress enabling towns to incorporate, elect officers, and provide education for white children, was a particular relief. For a time the Indians were allowed to manage their own educational affairs. This was so unwisely, if not corruptly, done that Congress provided in the Curtis Act (1898) that the National Government assume charge, and accordingly a superintendent of education was placed in authority over the Five Nations (the Seminoles excepted). In 1904 the school population was estimated at 162,641, of whom 38,422 were enrolled in public schools, with an average daily attendance of 23,053. There were five public high schools with an enrollment of 867, and five sectarian high schools with an enrollment of 873. POPULATION. The population of the Territory grew from 180,182 in 1890 to 392,060 in 1900, and to 700,000 (federal est.), in 1905. This great increase was due to the inflow of whites from the' States. The Indians in 1900 numbered 52,510; and negroes, 36,870. INDIANS. The Indians of the Territory consist of the 'Five Civilized Nations,' and those of seven reservations. Ninety-seven per cent. of the population, including whites, is found in the four prin |