that in these regions there is a greater decrease in the male population than the female. It is generally accepted that women withstand the deprivations of the famine more successfully

than men.

POPULATION OF THE LARGEST CITIES (INCLUDING IN MOST CASES CANTONMENTS)

Total Population in 1901 1891

847,796 682,305 776,006 821,764

209,331 219,467 208,575 192,579

202,964 176,854 197,170 188,712 188,022 168,662 183,816 188,815 172,032 175,246 162,548 136,766

160,167 158,787

159,046 180,366 153,320 161,390 134,785 165,192

EDUCATION. Education on the part of England in India has been carried on in the face of many serious obstacles, and under complex conditions peculiar to the country. Social, religious, and racial distinctions, solidified in the system of caste, were so thoroughly interwoven with the whole of the life that they circumscribed the scope and modified the methods of English instruction. British education has never had to deal in India with the implanting of Western culture on an Oriental people having no culture of their own, but the superimposing of one system of culture upon another more philosophically profound in its sphere, and upon a people who cherished an educational lore that antedated by far the one offered them in its stead. A system of education such as it was and restricted to the sanctioned castes-chiefly the Brahmin-had never been wanting in India. When the English began to introduce the new system, a bitter dispute arose as to how much recognition should be given this ancient and native learning; for instance, whether the English classics should supplant the Sanskrit and Arabic, and whether the English or the vernacular should be used as a medium of instruction. These questions were finally decided in favor of European as against Oriental knowledge, and in favor of the vernacular as a medium, though English became prominent in advanced instruction, and generous provisions were made to bring it within reach of all who desired it.

This system, which was finally adopted, and which in the main continues to-day, was outlined by Lord Halifax in 1854. An investigating commission, reporting in 1883, approved the system, but favored emphasizing certain features, such as the encouragement of native schools and of primary and female education, to the end that the masses might share more liberally in the benefits of learning. Religious instruction has never been permitted in the State schools-a policy different from that pursued by the English Government in the schools of England, and which has generally been opposed by the clerical and missionary interests. At the same time the State advances financial aid to missionary

jab, and Allahabad. They consist of examining bodies only, but have a large number of affiliated colleges. The number of persons receiving instruction has greatly increased during the past half-century. The field of education is, however, limited. The attendance is largely from the middle classes, especially in the State schools, and while the missionaries reach a larger proportion from the lower castes, the entire number is small in comparison with the number of persons to whom opportunities for education never

come.

Two criticisms in particular have been urged against the present system. The first is, the relative over-emphasis of higher education. This emphasis has been in accordance with the 'filtering down theory,' under which it was thought that the masses could be reached best through the agency of a highly educated native class. This theory in practice, however, leaves the masses untouched. The other criticism is that too much attention is given to classical and not enough to industrial instruction, and that, accordingly, the pupils are not fitted to take an active part in the industrial transformation which the country needs.

The figures taken from the last quinquennial review, reporting in 1897, show that there were 1,236.000 pupils in the State schools, 2,019,000 in aided schools, 532,000 in unaided schools, and 568,000 in private schools. Of these only 402,000 were females, or 2.3 per cent. of all the females of school age in India, the male attendance being 22.3 per cent. of all males of school age. The percentage of boys in attendance varied from 38.8 per cent. in the Province of Burma to 9.3 per cent. in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The grand total of all pupils in public and private institutions increased during the decade 1890 to 1900 from 3,692,000 to 4,462,000. Native Christian pupils represented 5.16 per cent., Hindu 72.86 per cent., and Mohammedan 14.62 per cent. of the total attendance. In public institutions there were 97 per cent. of the pupils studying the vernacular language; the percentage of those studying the classical languages and the English language was small. Over a third of the proceeds used for education was derived from fees, the remainder being divided between provincial, local, and municipal funds and other sources. The total expenditure on public instruction increased gradually from 3.31,58.447 rupees in 1894-95 to 3,77,29,012 in 1899-1900.

RELIGION.

From the earliest times India has been a land of numerous religions, and the creeds professed there to-day are almost as great in number as they are varied in spirit and character. The

majority of the people acknowledge Hinduism or Brahmanism (q.v.) as their faith. In the census of 1901 their number is given as over 200,000,000. Next in proportion, claiming about a third of this number, is Mohammedanism, which was introduced into India in the eleventh century, and spread with great rapidity. Its adherents claim no less than 60,000,000 souls throughout India, their numbers being largest in the north. Together these religions make up the faith of 90 per cent. of the entire population. The number of Buddhists is given at over 9,000,000; they are nearly all inhabitants of Burma. Statistics show that the number of nature-worshipers, who are roughly classed under the head of animistic, is no less than 8,500,000; while the Sikh religion is professed by over 2,000,000 individuals. Besides these there is a large representation of Jains, over 1,000,000, and a scattering number of Parsis, nearly 100,000. The spread of Christianity among the natives has been considerable, for the number is given at about 3,000,000 souls. There are nearly 200,000 Jews. Separate articles will be found devoted to the most important branches of Indian religions. (See BRAHMANISM; BUDDHISM; JAINISM; MOHAMMEDANISM; PARSIS; SIKHS.) The results of the religious survey of India in the census of 1901 present the following statistics. The first table is itemized by provinces for British India, with totals for native States and agencies. The second is the summary of the Christian population:

second, Brahmanism proper, or the faith inculcated by the priests in the religious books called Brahmanas, and in the philosophical Upanishads (q.v.); third, the period of the two great religious reforms, Buddhism and Jainism (q.v.), both of which were a reaction against decadent Brahmanism; fourth, the newer Hinduism or Brahmanic counter-reform, a wider and more catholic faith which sprang out of the schismatic reform movement; and, finally, the later Hindu sectarian outgrowths and the tendencies of the popular faiths. The Rig-Veda and Atharva-Veda represent the literature of the earliest period; the Yajur Veda is nearer to the second religious phase, or the Brahmanism of the priests; the sacred books of the Buddhistic and Jainistic reformations are written respectively in Pali (q.v.) and Prakrit (q.v.); again, the great Sanskrit epic poems of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana represent both the purer Brahmanic stage and the later sectarian tendencies; for the latter our chief source of information is that class of mythological works known under the name of Purānās (q.v.) and Tantras (q.v.); the material for the developments after B.C. 1500 must be gathered from various sources. With reference to the time of these eras we can only say in a general way that the Vedic period runs from a very early period down to about B.c. 1000 or a couple of centuries afterwards, and merges into the Brahmanic age, which closes perhaps about B.C. 500. The age of Buddhism was about B.C. 500 to A.D. 500, and the

time unifying tendencies have been more operative than ever before. It is necessary at the outset, however, to guard the reader against attempting to connect dates with the earlier of these periods. It has not been uncommon for writers on this subject to assign thousands of years before the Christian Era as the starting-points of various phases of Hindu antiquity; others, more cautious, marked the beginnings of certain divisions of Vedic works with 1200, 1000, 800, and 600 years B.C. The truth is, that since Hindu literature itself is almost without known dates, owing either to the peculiar organization of the Hindu mind, or to the convulsions of Indian history, the present condition of Sanskrit philology does not afford the scholar the requisite resources for embarking with any chance of success in such chronological speculations. The question of Hindu chronology will be more particularly considered in the article VEDA. In the meantime, the utmost stretch of assumption which in the present condition of Sanskrit philology it is permitted to make is, that the latest writings of the Vedic class are not more recent than the second century before Christ. A like uncertainty hangs over the period at which the two great epic poems of India were composed, although there is reason to surmise that the lower limits of that period did not reach beyond the beginning of the Christian Era. The Puranic period, on the other hand, scholars are generally agreed to regard as corresponding with part of our medieval history, or roughly from A.D. 500 to 1500, although the material in these writings is often much older in its content. VEDIC RELIGION. If the Rig-Veda-the oldest of the Vedas, and one of the oldest literary documents in existence-coincided with the beginning of Hindu civilization, the popular creed of the Hindus, as depicted in some of its hymns, would reveal not only the original creed of this nation, but throw a strong light on the original religion of humanity itself. Unhappily, however, the inragination, indulging in such an hypothesis, would have little foundation to work on. There are, of course, numerous traces in the Rig-Veda of survivals of earlier animistic beliefs, of spiritism, fetishism, and ancestor-worship; but the Hindus, as depicted in these hymns, are far removed from the starting point of human society; they may, in fact, fairly claim to be ranked among those already civilized communities experienced in arts, defend ing their homes and property in organized warfare, acquainted even with many vices which are found only in an advanced condition of artificial life. Yet in examining the ideas expressed in the greatest number of the Rig-Vedic hymns, it cannot be denied that they are neither ideas engendered by an imagination artificially influenced, nor such as have made a compromise with philosophy. The Hindu of these hymns is essentially engrossed by the might of the elements. The powers which turn his awe into pious subjection and veneration are-Agni (q.v.), the fire of the sun and lightning; Indra (q.v.), the god of the storm and the thunder; the Maruts, or winds (see MARUT); Surya, the sun (see SURYA); Ushas, the dawn, whose hymns are among the most beautiful (see USHAS); and various kindred manifestations of the luminous bodies, and nature in general. He invokes them, not as representatives of a superior being, before whom the human soul professes its humility, nor as

superior beings themselves, which may reveal to his searching mind the mysteries of creation or eternity, but because he wants their assistance against enemies-because he wishes to obtain from them rain, food, cattle, health, and other boons. He complains to them of his troubles, and reminds them of the wonderful deeds they performed of yore, to coax them, as it were, into acquiescence and friendly help; in fact, he seeks them more for his material than for his spiritual welfare. What we should call the ethical side is less pronounced. Sin and evil, indeed, are often adverted to, and the gods are praised because they destroy sinners and evildoers; but one would err in associating with these words our notions of sin or wrong. A sinner, in these hymns, is rather a man who does not address praises to those elementary deities, or who does not gratify them with the oblations they receive at the hands of the believer. He is the foe, the robber, the demon-in short, the borderer infesting the territory of the 'pious' man. The latter, in his turn, may injure, and kill, but, in adoring Agni, Indra, and their kin, he is satisfied that he can commit no evil act. Yet some of the hymns, especially those addressed to the supersensuous, transcendental god Varuna (q.v.), the guardian of order and right, seem to imply the strongest sense of moral obligation and of sin as we understand the word. On the whole, it may also be said that the internal condition of the Hindu community, the features of which may be gathered from the hymns, seems to bespeak union and brotherhood among its members; and the absence, in general, of hymns which appeal to the gods for the suppression of internal dissensions or public vices, bears testimony ap parently to the good moral condition of the people whose wants are recorded in these songs.

It may be imagined that the worship of elementary beings like those we have mentioned was originally a simple and harmless one. It is true that the sacrifice of sheep and goats, bulls, and even horses, was known, but it was not general. By far the greatest number of the Rig-Veda hymns know of but one sort of offering made to these gods; it consists of the juice of the soma (q.v.) or moon-plant, which, pressed out and fermented, was an exhilarating and inebriating beverage, and for this reason, probably, was deemed to invigorate the gods, and to increase their beneficial potency. It was presented to them in ladles, or sprinkled on the sacred Kusa grass. Clarified butter, too, poured on the fire, is mentioned in several hymns as an oblation agreeable to the gods, and it may have belonged to the primitive stage of the Vedic worship. There were no temples of the divinities, and in early times no images. The altar, if used, was very simple. The gods easily gathered from the atmospheric region roundabout.

There is a class of hymns, however, to be found in the Rig-Veda which already depart materially from the simplicity of the conceptions we are referring to. In these the instinctive utterance of feeling makes room for the language of speculation; the allegories of poetry yield to the mysticism of the reflecting mind; and the mysteries of nature becoming more keenly felt, the circle of beings which overawe the popular mind becomes enlarged. Thus, the objects by which Indra, Agni, and the other deities are propitiated become gods themselves; soma, espe