Great Britain has a practical monopoly for India in the supply of railway material and machinery, and it supplies also the larger part of other metal products, Belgium, of the other countries, sharing most extensively in the trade. Mineral oil is the principal import from the United States, but Russia now furnishes the bulk of this article. Among several exports of relatively great importance, rice-the only export upon which export duties are levied-is the most prominent and fluctuates the least, reaching an average value in recent years of about 13,000,000 tens of rupees. Most of the rice goes to Egypt, the United Kingdom, Ceylon, and the Straits Settlements. During the last quarter of a century there has been a great increase in the exports of oil seeds to Europe, averaging for the last decade nearly 11,000,000 tens of rupees. Exports of hides and skins, jute-raw and manufactured-and tea increased very rapidly during the decade ending with 1900, reaching in that year values of £6,975,000, £9,557,000, and £6,117,000 respectively. Raw hides and skins and jute cloth constitute the principal exports to the United States. The amount of each increased enormously during the decade and far exceeds that sent to any other country. Exports of manufactured jute increased 20 per cent. during the last decade of the nineteenth century. Nearly all the tea exported goes to the United Kingdom; it has not yet become a formidable competitor with the Chinese product for the United States markets.

Opium, which is exported to China and the Straits Settlements, is decreasing in amount, the total value for 1900 being £5,469,000. Exports of wheat fluctuate widely; the value for 1900, which was higher than the average for five years previously, was £2,606,000; the total for the last decade was much less than that for the preceding ten years. Most of the product goes to the United Kingdom. From 1890 to 1900, exports of indigo averaged about 4,000,000 tens of rupees annually, with a tendency latterly to decline. For more than two decades, ending with 1900, exports of coffee have varied from about 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 tens of rupees. Spices, which once were a large part of the exports, are now relatively insignificant. Treasure has long constituted one of the most valuable imports, and has annually exceeded in amount the exports of treasure for more than half a century. The value for the decade 1890-1900 averaged over 16,000,000 tens of rupees, over two-thirds of which was silver. Since the Government stopped the free coinage of rupees in 1893 the net imports of gold have been gaining upon those of silver. exports of gold and silver for the same period averaged over 5,500.000 tens of rupees.

The

The imports and exports by land are not large, the total for 1900 being respectively £4,700.000 and £3,759,000, which, however, constituted a considerable increase over the early years of the decade. Over half of the former and nearly half of the latter were to and from Nepal and Kashmir. The most important land imports were grain, pulse, timber, and provisions, while more than one-half the exports were cotton goods. Native craft carry on an extensive coastwise trade, particularly along the coast of Bombay. The traffic along this coast amounts to over onethird of the total coastwise trade. The large inland trade increases with the development of

means of transportation. The inland and the local trade are very largely in the hands of natives, there being certain sects or castes, as the Parsis of Bombay, who devote themselves especially to this branch of industry.

The foreign trade of India is done mainly in British vessels, the tonnage of these in 1897-98 amounting to 89 per cent. of the total. This total was greater than that for the corresponding year of either of the two preceding decades. Germany and Austria-Hungary are the most important of the other nations represented.

GOVERNMENT. By an act of Parliament, which received the royal assent August 2, 1858, Queen Victoria was declared sovereign of India, and various regulations were enacted for the better government of the country. In 1877, in virtue of an act of Parliament, passed in 1876, the Queen was proclaimed Empress of India. The Home Government of India is vested in a Secretary of State, who is a member of the English Cabinet. He is assisted by an Under-Secretary and a council of fifteen members. The Indian Executive Government is administered by a Viceroy or Governor-General, appointed by the Crown, and acting under the control of the Secretary of State for India. The Viceroy's term of office is for six years, and he is assisted by a council of five ordinary members, three appointed by the Secretary of State, and two by his Majesty's warrant. Each of them has charge of a department of the executive. The Viceroy himself retains the oversight of foreign affairs, and can overrule a majority vote of his council. The commanderin-chief is an extraordinary member of the council. This council, whenever it acts as a legislative body, is enlarged. It then has from ten to sixteen additional members who are nominated by the Viceroy for terms of two years, half of them being non-officials. Five of these councilors must be individuals who have been recommended, one each respectively by the unofficial members of the councils of Madras, Bombay, Bengal, and the United Provinces of Agra, and one by the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce. Proposals to legislate upon subjects such as finance, religion, military and naval forces, or the relations of the Government with foreign princes or States, must first receive the sanction of the Governor-General.

For purposes of administration, British India is separated into a number of divisions or provinces. They differ in the method of their govern ment. The two governments of Madras and Bombay are under the rule of Governors appointed by the Crown, and assisted by legislative and executive councils. The executive council consists of only two men. From eight to twenty others are added to form the legislative council. These bodies communicate only with regard to important matters with the Home Government through the Governor-General. As regards affairs of minor importance, they correspond directly with the Secretary of State for India. Provinces of Bengal, the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, the Punjab, and Burma are administered by Lieutenant-Governors appointed by the Governor-General, subject to the approbation of the Secretary of State for India. These officers act without the aid of any executive councils, but have legislative councils of not more than twenty members, nominated by the Lieutenant-Governor on the approval of the Gov

The

ernor-General. There are a number of points upon which the local legislators in India cannot touch, and their proceedings are void if disapproved by the Governor or Lieutenant-Governor, the Governor-General, or by the Home Government. The following divisions, viz.: Assam, Central Provinces, Berar, Ajmere-Merwara, Coorg, British Baluchistan, the Andaman Islands, and the new Northwest Frontier Province, are under chief commissioners. There are no local councils for these provinces, such legislation as they may need being supplied by the GovernorGeneral in legislative council. All the foregoing governmental divisions are subdivided into smaller divisions called districts, of which there are in all 250, varying both in size and population. The executive officer in each district is called the collector magistrate or deputy commissioner. This office is remarkable in that its powers extend over every department of administration. The officer has charge of the collecting of the revenue, of education, roads, sanitation, police, and jails, and he is judge both of first instance and of appeals.

It has been the policy of the British Government to try to awaken a sense of civic responsibility among the natives, and it has encouraged the creation of the necessary machinery for local self-government. Much difficulty has attended the effort, owing to the absolute dominance which class distinction holds over the social order, making almost impossible the development of the idea of a mutual community interest. Some progress, nevertheless, is being made. Every province of India has since 1860 secured laws which place the administration of municipal affairs in the hands of local bodies. In small places these bodies are nominated from among the townsfolk, but in large places they are mostly elected. Under specified regulations, the local bodies may raise funds or receive grants of public money for local purposes. In 1901 there were 764 of these municipal towns, containing an aggregate population of 16,500,000. The total income of these towns for the year mentioned was £4,828,288. The rural regions have also been supplied with district and local boards for purposes of self-government. In 1901 there were 1101 of these boards, including a total of 5553 elected members and 10,661 ex-official and nominated members. The income of these rural regions for the year mentioned was £2,509,829. The probability of the development of a national representative native government is scarcely conceivable. The idea of a common country or a national life does not exist. The masses are ignorant of even the geographical conception implied in the name India. There is, it is true, a national native Congress, which meets annually, but it is scarcely representative in any true sense or indicative of any popular national tendencies.

There are high courts of jurisdiction at Calcutta, Madras, Allahabad, and Bombay, appointments being made to them by the Home Government. These courts have a general oversight of the lower courts and are courts of appeal, but there is an ultimate appeal to the judicial committee of the Privy Council in England. The Punjab has a chief court, and the Central Provinces, Oudh, and Mysore have each a judicial commissioner. Burma has two judicial commissioners, as well as a recorder. The great majority

of the magistrates in the courts of original jurisdiction and of the civil judges are natives. Europeans have certain privileges in court not possessed by natives.

FINANCE. In the consideration of Indian finance, regard must be given to the denomination in which the estimates are made. If estimated in pounds, as in the following table, there is an apparent decrease in most of the noncommercial items of revenue and expenditure. On the contrary, if estimated in rupees, most of them show a very decided increase. The depreciation in the value of the rupee, as measured in gold, accounts for this difference; but since the burden upon the taxpayer is determined by the local purchasing power of the rupee, the question of the effect upon the welfare of the native is a subject of dispute.

Leaving out of account the productive enterprises of the Government, which are largely self-supporting, it will be seen that customs and excise play a minor part in the support of the Government, while land revenue has contributed on an average considerably over a fourth of the total amount. The stamp, salt, and opium revenues also play a conspicuous part. The land revenue, however, is not absolutely nor relatively so important as formerly. This revenue partakes of the nature of a rent as well as of a tax. The rent varies with soil and the distance from the town, but averages about 1s. 10d. per acre for the total acreage of cultivated land. The opium revenues are secured mainly from the monopoly of the industry in Eastern India, and the export duty collected in Western India. An increase in the salt duties in 1888 established the present uniform rate of 21⁄2 rupees per maund. The collections from stamps are principally obtained from court fee stamps. The largest item in the excise revenue is that collected from the manufacturer of spirits, but other sources, as, for instance, the monopolies for the sale of liquors and intoxicating drugs, help to swell the amount. The interests of British trade have determined the policy of keeping the import duties-especially those on cotton goods-at a minimum figure, though the natives have at the same time demanded tariff protection. The general customs duties of 5 per cent. existing prior to 1882 were abolished in that year, except those on salt, opium, wine, beer, spirits, and arms. In 1894 a 5 per cent. ad valorem was reimposed, except on machinery and a few other articles; but two years later the duty on woven cotton goods was reduced to 3% per cent. ad valorem, and cotton yarn was exempted from duty. Since 1886 an income tax has been assessed upon incomes exceeding 500 rupees.

In the last two decades of the nineteenth century the budget yielded a surplus for twelve years of the period, and showed a deficit for eight years. The heaviest drain upon the Imperial Exchequer is made by the military charges. They are followed closely by the cost of the civil service. Both of these items, according to the consensus of native opinion, are unnecessarily burdensome upon the country. The army charges are irritating because the natives consider the army too large, and particularly because of the large proportion of British soldiers who monopolize most of the best positions, and whose salary and pensions are largely taken or sent out of the country. The Civil Service excites native criti

cism because of the practical monopoly exercised by the English over the higher offices, and the excessive salaries attached to them. A few English officers receive an aggregate remuneration considerably greater than that given to the numerous native minor officials. The control of the opium, customs, post-office and telegraph, tributes, mint and currency, receipts and the expenditure under the heads of army and military works, political relations, public debt, and certain trunk railways, is retained by the Central Government. The management of all provincial revenues and some of the Imperial revenues is delegated to the local governments.

The following table gives a statement of the average annual expenditure for the two decades indicated and the year 1901:

DETAILS

£5,000,000, and other obligations assumed in India for savings banks, departmental ard judicial deposits, etc., which brought the total liabilities up to £223,843,244 in 1901. The total interest for that year, amounting to £7,436,973, was distributed as follows: Railways, £4,376,699; irrigation, £921,328; ordinary debt, £1,776,406; and other obligations, £362,540.

CURRENCY. In British India accounts are kept in rupees, annas, and pies-16 annas making one rupee, and 12 pies making one anna. Beginning with the early seventies the rupee was subject to great fluctuation in value, with a general downward tendency. The burden of taxation was greatly increased in consequence of the great fall in the value of silver, the Indian revenues being raised in silver, while the amount spent

Buildings and roads..

Army services

Special defense works..

Post-office, telegraph, and mint. Railway revenue account... Irrigation...

The total average in round numbers for each decade is, respectively, £76,300,000 and £62,600,000. The total for 1901 is £73,400,000.

The following table shows the average annual revenues for each of the three decades indicated and for the year 1901:

DETAILS

14,953,786 2,380,082

The total average for the decade 1871-80 was £55,000,000; for 1881-90, £75,000,000; and for 1891-1900, £62,800,000. The total for the year 1901 was £75,200,000.

DEBT. The permanent debt of India gradually increased from £33,577,414 in 1842 to £51,327,958 in 1857, when it rapidly grew in consequence of the Indian mutiny, and stood in 1862 at £97,037,062, and gradually increased to £205,323,315 in 1901. Of this last amount, £76,887,936 was held in India and £128,435,379 in England. The greater part of the debt in India bears interest at the rate of 3% per cent., and about one-half the debt in England bears interest at the same rate, the remainder paying interest at the rate of 3, 34, and 22 per cent. Besides the above there were an unfunded debt in England of

VOL. X.-35.

552,189

2,555,919

rupees raised by the Government had to be increased by one-half. The financial embarrassment thus caused led the Government in 1892, when the exchange value of the rupee sank to 1s. Id., to consider a plan for the closing of the Indian mints to the coining of silver. In June, 1893, a law to this effect was passed, and the rate of 1s. 4d. for the rupee was established as the gold price of silver, provision being made that when the rupee rose to this value the mints should be reopened to the coinage of silver. The value of the rupee gradually rose, and, so far as the Government was concerned, the financial conditions greatly improved. But complaint was made that the native growers and the European planters in India were suffering severely from the change. It was argued that these classes

were obliged to pay labor on the old scale, in spite of the appreciation of the currency. Hence, while industrial expenses remained nominally the same, the employers received lower profits. Heavy losses fell also upon the natives, who as times grew hard were obliged to turn their hoards of silver into money. Finally, in the spring of 1898, a currency committee was appointed to investigate the monetary situation in India. This committee reported, in July, 1899, in favor of maintaining the gold standard, and making it more effective; and to this end a law was passed in September of the same year. Since 1899 the value of the silver rupee has been stable at the rate fixed-1s. 4d. (32.4 cents). The coinage of rupees, which for some years after 1893 almost ceased, became large in 1900-1901, and the profit on the coinage was set aside as a special gold reserve fund to be used in maintaining the rate of exchange between Great Britain and India. There is a comparatively small amount of paper money in circulation in India. It is legal tender within certain limited districts. The amount outstanding in March, 1898, was 298,659,000 rupees, about two-thirds of which was in the districts of Calcutta and Bombay.

According to the Indian money system, 100,000 rupees equal 1 lakh, and 100 lakhs equal 1 crore. Hence a sum that would be read in terms of rupees only, according to the English method, would, according to the Indian method, be differently punctuated and read in terms of both the larger and the smaller denominations. To illustrate: The sum 37884517000 rupees would in English read 37,884,517,000 rupees, but in the Indian notation it would be written 3,788,45,17,000 and read "Three thousand seven hundred eighty-eight crores, forty-five lakhs, seventeen thousand rupees." In Indian money estimates, sums are often given in tens of rupees, the abbreviation being Rx.

CIVIL SERVICE. The administrative offices are largely filled through civil service appointments. Candidates taking the examination required to secure a position must be under twenty-four years of age. The successful candidate is then on probation for a year in England, during which period certain requirements are to be fulfilled, as, for instance, the learning of the Indian law. A pension is obtainable after twenty-five years of service. Advancement is secured partly by promotion and partly by seniority. After a probationary period of four years a selection may be made between the revenue and the judicial departments, the civilian remaining in the department selected throughout the remainder of his career in the service. There are about 1000 positions to be filled under the covenanted civil service of India. Inasmuch as the examinations are held in London, there are not many natives of India who are able to take them, and nearly all the highly paid positions still go to Englishmen. However, the minor administration, both administrative and judicial, is mostly filled by natives. It is estimated that 90 per cent. of the civil employees of India are natives. DEFENSE. The supremacy of the British sea power practically guarantees India from invasion by way of the sea, and the Himalaya Mountains perform a like service for a great part of the northern frontier. The main interest in the defense of India centres about the northwest frontier, which is the historic gateway for in

vasions into India. In the last two decades of the nineteenth century the British adopted a more active frontier policy. They have established outposts and fortifications commanding the mountain passes that communicate with the west and north and more securely defend the Trans-Indus region. The British have a post of observation at Chitral and possess an 'influence' at Gilgit which enables them to keep informed as to the Hindu-Kush passes. Farther south the Swat Valley is in the hands of the British. The important Khyber Pass (q.v.) is open, and the large garrison stationed at Peshawar serves to protect it. Continuing south, the Kuram and the Tochi valleys are controlled by the British, as are also the Gunal Pass and the Zhob Valley. Quetta has been made a strong defensive point, as has also Sakkar-the city on the Indus where the railroad crosses to the westward. A number of posts along the earlier frontier line farther east are still maintained; others have been abandoned. The scheme of defense has led to the construction of railroads for military purposes, one of which extends to New Chaman, the farthest outpost on the Afghan frontier. These lines now make it possible quickly and easily to transport the soldiers to the different frontier strongholds.

The threatening approach of the Russians to the Indian frontier has established an excuse for the British to maintain a large army. The experience of the Sepoy rebellion has led them to increase the proportion which the British troops hold to the total military force, the intention being that the latter shall constitute onethird of the total number, and that the artillery shall be almost wholly British. The native soldiers are drawn largely from a few tribes, such as the Sikhs, Gurkhas, Rajputs, and Jats, who are the warrior races of the country, and are much more efficient as soldiers than are the rasses of the population. Class distinctions are recognized, and the different units in the army organization are composed of homogeneous elements. Through the improvement of sanitary conditions, and the exercise of greater caution in locating British soldiers, fatalities are of much less frequent occurrence than formerly. The native States still maintain military forces, but the British have succeeded in their effort to have their number reduced and brought more or less under their own control. For a statement concerning the organization and statistics of the army, see ARMIES, paragraph on British Empire.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The unit of weight commonly used is the maund, but it varies greatly in amount, being equivalent to 82 pounds avoirdupois in Bengal, only about 28 pounds in Bombay, and 25 pounds in Madras. The tola, a small unit, is equivalent to 180 grains. In Bengal there is a unit of measure called the guz, equivalent to 36 inches. An act was passed in 1871 to establish a uniform decimal system of weights and measures, but it has never gone into operation.

POPULATION. India is one of the most densely populated countries, containing between one-fifth and one-sixth of the estimated population of the world. In 1901 the number of inhabitants per square mile was 188, as against 283 (estimated) for China, and 25.6 (1900) for the United States. The population is most unevenly distributed, nearly two-fifths being found in the valley of the